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/ 


Feelings and Emotions 


Antoinette feleky 

B. S., M. A., (Columbia) 



PIONEER PUBLISHING CO., 
New York 
1922 


Printed in Germany, 
ti. Franke, Printer, 
Dessau. 








Preface 


The purpose of this book is, first, to show that the fundamenta 
background of all human expression — artistic, scientific, religious, etc., 
are thoughts and feelings which are the outcome of experience; second, 
to create an interest in a science (psychology) which aims to explain 
\this experience. 

I believe that this is the first attempt to analyze thoughts and 
feelings as a chemist analyzes a compound. In the first chapter an 
experience is described by means of over two hundred and sixty words, 
out of which two are selected: „chair”, which represents an object 
in the external world, and *fear”, which represents an emotion or fact 
of the internal world. These are then reduced to their lowest terms. 

As we are all familiar with the common bit of furniture known as 
„chair”, which gives us our thoughts of that object, it was unneccessary 
to furnish photographic illustrations of it. But in the consideration of 
the expressions of FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS, this is not the case. 
Attempts have been made by Bell, Darwin, Duchenne, Lavater and others 
to give photographs and pictorial representations of facial expression. 
But pictorial representations, drawn by artists, are not exact enough for 
psychological study, and the photographs given are not complete. I 
have endeavored to supply this deficiency. The preservation of facial 
expression by means of photographs would be of great value in the 
study of the feelings and emotions. 

This book should be of value to the psychologist also on account 
of the numerous illustrations which may be used in the class room 
or laboratory for experimental purposes. It should be of value to the 
photographer, painter, sculptor, and dramatic artist, as the book plainly 
proves that, to get a desired expression, a corresponding thought and 
feeling must exist in the mind of the subject. Another feature of its 




IV 


interest to them is the collection of three hundred and ninety -twO 
illustrations given as samples. 

It should be of value to all those who are interested in the human 
individual, to the physician, the lawyer, the social worker etc., because 
the photographs bring out clearly and prove the existence of a phenomena 
known as prejudice, and show unmistakably the sensitivity of the 
individual to react to its environment 


New York, 1922. A. F. 










Contents 


Chapter I 

Mental and physical facts 

An actual experience described; it presents a concrete example of a few 
moments of consciousness. Words, a means of expression. Physical world 
contrasted with mental world (Thorndike); physical life contrasted with mental 
life (Royce). Transition of a physical object or fact as „chair” to that of a 
mental fact. Two environments to be considered: external and internal.^— 
Experiences through sensory end organs and sensory nerve-cells give us our 
knowledge of mental facts (thoughts, feelings, and emotions). Photographic 
illustrations to aid us in defining consciousness; employment of science and 
art in explaining consciousness. Sensory experiences fundamental background—, 
of artistic and scientific work. Observations of photographs 1 and 2 (sleep): 
Maudsley’s scientific discussion of sleep; Kirke White’s poetic discussion of 
sleep; Shakespeare’s dramatic discussion of sleep (Scene of Lady Macbeth) — 
Psychoanalytic discussion of sleep (Freud’s theory of dreams). Mosso's 
Experimental discussion of sleep. The mental state and its expression are 
one and inseparable . ... 1—22 

Chapter II 

Sensation and feeling - emotion 

The infant’s and the adult’s experiences. Observations on newborn 
infants. Individual differences. Sense experiences accompanied by charac¬ 
teristic feelings. Photographic illustrations of these feelings. Important for 
us to understand the inherited mechanism which gives us our sensations, 
feelings and emotions: The human body-summary. Steps in the production 
of sensation and feeling and emotion. Sensations classified into two groups. 

Primary feelings and emotions-pleasure, pain, anger, fear, disgust and wonder 23—39 

Chapter III 

Thoughts and feelings - emotions 

Observation of Plates VI and VII: Common sense point of view; psycho¬ 
logical point of view; physiological point of view; physicist’s point of view. 
Transition of a physical fact to that of a mental fact (Tyndall). Vibration 
is the basis of all phenomena in the universe. Sensations, perceptions, images, 
ideas etc. are the result of brain changes, which are themselves part of the 
world’s material system. Involuntary or sensorimotor actions account for 




Vi 


feelings and emotions accompanying sensations. Involuntary movements which 
are directly aroused by an idea or thought (ideomotor) account for the feelings 
and emotions which accompany thought.40—66 

Chapter IV 

Expression of feelings and emotions 

Natural and conventional language. Thought impossible without 
language (Max Muller). Language defined: Thomson, Dewey, Hazard. 
Psychological explanation of language — Baldwin, Judd. Speech (Meyer), 

Writing (Judd). Natural language. Conventional language. Words express¬ 
ing thought with a minimum of feeling. Words expressing thoughts, feelings 
and emotions. Illustrations of thoughts, feelings and emotions (photographs). 

External expression of the emotions and what is known as natural language 

are one and the same.69—80 

Chapter V 

Expression of consciousness 

Attention and mind set. Experimenting with four photographs. Marginal 
thoughts felt in the focal region. Thorndike’s law of mind set. Psychical 
blindness in human beings (James). Attention with a minimum of thoughts 
and feelings. Attention likened to the visual field (Angell). Attention likened 
to the auditory consciousness (James). Attention and the thought process 
(James). Attention and the emotional and volitional consciousness. Thalamus 
is a centre for affective tone (Tilney and Riley). Sensory and ideational 
stimuli influence muscular tension (Judd, Jastrow). Every possible feeling 
produces a movement (James). Bain’s law of diffusion, Spencer’s law of 
nervous discharge, Darwin’s third principle are identical phenomena. Cannon’s 
and Pawlow’s experiments. Inherited and acquired reflexes form characteristic 
brain patterns. Shand’s, Feleky’s, and McDougall’s primary emotions. 
Introspection and attention (Woodworth). Discussion of photographs . . 81—108 

Chapter VI 

Experiment in judgment of facial expression of the emotions 

Photographs-list of words — records — judgments — conclusions . 109—198 

Chapter VII 

Expression of feelings and emotions (conclusion) 

Considerable degree of agreement among the 100 judgments. Dictio- 
naries-books on synonyms aid students. Fourteen examples of introspection. 

Action and reaction of the same mental states due to instinctive tendency. 
Distinction between science and art. Music, the language of the emotions. 
Measurement oFthe emotions. 200—208 






VII 


Notes to Chapter I 

What is meant by experience? (James, Morgan). Science and experience 
(Titchener) How experiences consolidate (Judd). Relation of experience to 
the intellectual life (Royce). Eyperience and Consciousness (Judd). Psychology 
and expressive acts (Royce). In all mental action there is some physical 
expression (Stratton). The law of expression (Thorndike). Psychology as 
the behaviorist views it (Watson). Nervous System (Huxley). General 
functions of the nervous system (Dearborn). Memory and experience (Ladd 
and Woodworth). Memory as a biological fact (Ribot) Relation of psycho¬ 
logy to science (Wundt, Dewey); to art (Mtinsterberg) Notes: Freud, Coriat, 

Brill, Mosso, Lowell, Luys, Thorndike. 209—225 

Notes to Chapter II 

The newborn infant. First seven days of an infant’s experiences (Preyer; 

Dearborn). Temperaments in infancy (Preyer). Images and past experiences 
(Angell, McCosh, Ribot). Sante de Sanctis.. 226- 230 

Notes to Chapter III 

Physiognomy: Chas. Bell, LeBrun, Duchenne, Darwin, Mantegazza, 

Piderit, Warner, Schulze-Pintner. Inner life should be amenable to physico¬ 
chemical analysis (J. Loeb) Reactions and perceptions (J. McKeen Cattel) . 231—232 

Notes to Chapter VI 

Judges. Introspection. Definition and synonyms: Enthusiasm, pleasure, 
suspicion, contempt, surprise, smiling, laughter, fear, hate. 233—240 







Illustrations 


Plate 1 


Plate II 


Plate 111 


Plate IV 


Plate V 


Plate VI 


Plate VII 


1 Sleep. 

2 Deeper sleep 

3 Awareness 

4 Voluntary Attention 


5 Involuntary 


6 Joy 

7 Sensation of 

sight plus pleasurable feeling. 

8 



touch „ „ „ 

9 



„ „ slight stinging pain 

10 

» 

n 

taste * pleasant feeling 

11 

* 


„ „ unpleasant feeling 

12 


ff 

smell „ pleasurable feeling. 

13 


y, 

» n it t> 

14 

If 

y, 

t» t» t» » 

15 

V 


hearing plus pleasurable feeling 

16 

ff 

y, 

„ „ unpleasant „ 

17 

„ 

yy 

pain in the heart, plus unpleasant feeling .... 

18 

» 

n 

» ff » ff v w ff 

19 


n 

» ff y> y> » w ff 

20 


r> 

ff ff ff ff ff ff ff 

21 


„ 

* (crushed fingers) 

22 

* 


* (elbow joint) 

23 

„ 


v (shin bone) 

24 

„ 

n 

» (back) 

25 

» 

r> 

yawning. 

26 

V 


fatigue plus feeling of fatigue 

27 



strain „ „ „ strain 

28 


» 

joy due to muscular exercise (singing) 

29 


» 

Intellectual distress: „Were is it?” (Attention to thought) 

30 


„ 

„ „ „Thinking” „ „ „ 

31 


» 

„ „ „Attention to Notes” 

32 

* 

„ 

„ „ „0 pshaw!” (distressed) 

33 


>* 

„ „ Perplexed 

34 

» 

„ 

(Doesn’t know what to do) Perplexed 

35 

V 

„ 

„Will” — „I must find it” 

36 

V 

„ 

„ — „I will find it” etc. 

37 

y, 

„ 

Intellectual pleasure: „Order reigns”. 

38 

» 

„ 

„ „ „I found it” 

39 

V 

» 

„ „ „It’s all right” 

40 

» 


„ „ „It’s great” 

41 

>> 

jt 

„ „ „It’s wonderful” 

42 

„ 

)} 

„ „ „I’ll write it down” 

43 

„ 

» 

„ „ ,,1’m almost thru with it” 

44 

>> 


„ „ Relaxation 


Page 

11 


26 


28 


29 


29 


41 


41 











Page 

42 


Plate VIII 45 Enunciating alphabet silently . . . 

46 Absence of thought 

Plate IX 47 ,,Sleep, sleep”, etc. 

48 „ 

49 „Sweet babe”, etc. 

50 „As thy softest limbs I feel”— 

51 „Oh, the cunning wiles that creep” 

52 „Then the dreadful light shall break” 

53 „I have no name;” 

54 „What shall I call thee?” 

55 „Joy is my name” 

56 „Pretty Joy!” 

57 „Thou dost smile” 

58 „Sweet joy befall thee!” 

Plate X 59 „My heart is sore”.76 

60 „Save him I have” 

61 „iiim only I watch for” 

62 „ „ I look for” 

63 „His lofty gait” 

64 „His lordly guise” 

* 65 (2) „The smile of his lips” (Pleasure) 

66 (1) „The might of his eyes" (Enthusiasm) 

67 „The charmed flow” 

68 „The clasp of his hand” 

69 „And ah, his kiss.” 

70 „Ah! could I clasp him” 

71 (4) Interest, tenderness and modesty. „I feel it, you but spare 

my ignorance” 

72 (3) Modesty: „To shame me, sir, you stoop thus low." 

73 „Only one little moment think of me!” 

74 „But many weary hours, in sooth, were also mine.” 

75 „Did you not see it? I cast down my eyes” 

76 „Sweet love!” 

77 „Thy truth then by thy dower” 

78 „For, by the sacred radiance of the sun” 

79 „The mysteries of hecate . . . .” 

80 „Hold thee from this for ever. The 

81 barbarous Scythian, 

82 „As thou my sometime daughter” 

Plate XI 83 „Oh, Romeo, Romeo!”.78 

84 (42) „ „ (Romantic love) 

85 „Wherefore art thou Romeo?” 

86 „Deny thy father and refuse thy name;” 

87 „Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn m y love” 

88 „And I’ll no longer be a Capulet” 

89 „Tis but thy name that is my enemy” 

90 », >» >> » >> »> i* » 

*) The numbers in the parentheses correspond with the numbers of the photographs as given in 
the experiment - Chapter VI. 








/ 


91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 
100 

Plate XII 101 
102 

103 

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 

109 

110 
111 
112 

113 

114 

115 

116 

117 

118 

Plate XIII 119 
120 
121 
122 

123 

124 

125 

126 

127 

128 

129 

130 

Plate XIV 131 

132 

133 

134 

135 

136 

137 

138 


„Thou art thyself, though not a Montague" 

„By any other name would smell as sweet” 

„Retain that dear perfection 
„Take all myself” 

„What man art thou, that thus bescreen’d in night so stumbled 
on my counsel?” 

(43) „How earnest thou hither, tell me, and wherefore?” 
„Farewell! God knows when we shall meet again.” 


tt *1 »» tt »» tt tt tt 

„I have a faint cold fear thrills through my veins” 

„Nurse! What should she do here?” 

„My dismal scene I needs must ask alone”.79 

„What if this mixture do not work at all” 

„Shall I be married then tomorrow morning” 

„No no; this shall forbid it. Lie thou there?” 

(44) „What if it were a poison” 

„I fear it is;” 

„and yet, methinks it should not,” 

„Come to redeem me?” 

„There's a fearful point.” 

„To whose foul mouth no healthsome air breathes in” 

„And there die strangled ere my Romeo comes?” 

„Or, if I live, is it not very like,” 

„The horrible conceit of death and night,” 

„Together with the terror of the place,” 

„Dash out my desperate brains?” 

„Oh look! . . .” 

(46) „Stay,” 

(45) „Romeo, I come; this do 1 drink to thee.” (Bitter — sweet feeling) 

(5) Pleasure (Viewing a beautiful landscape).80 

(6) „ (Thought of something good to eat) 

Thought of a loved one 

» »» ft »* tt 

„ „ beautiful scenery 

,, „ ,, ,, (North Sea) 

(7) Sensuous love 

(8) Love (pleasure) 

Love 
Hateful 

' it 

(41) Perplexity and wor^y 

(39) Pleasant attention . . . 

(40) Smiling 
Smiling 

11 

Laughing 
11 

(64) Disgust \ 

i Various degrees 

tt ' 








XI 


139 Disgust] 

140 „ I 

141 „ 

142 „ ) 


Page 


Various degrees 


Plate 


143 (36) Sharp physical pain 

144 (37) Sick feeling 

145 Pain (shooting pain) 

146 „ (exhausted from pain) 

147 (63) „Dear thing” (tenderness) 

148 (62) Contempt 

XV 149 (52) Vanity., 

150 (53) Sadness 

151 (51) Rage 

152 (50) Despair 


80 


153 

154 

155 

156 

157 

158 

159 

160 
161 
162 

163 

164 

165 

166 

Plate XVI 167 
168 

169 

170 

171 

172 

173 

174 

175 

176 

177 

178 

179 

180 
181 
182 

183 

184 

Plate XVII 185 

186 

187 


(54) Smiling 

(30) Beginning of a smile 

(55) Disgust 

(31) Determination 

(32) Righteous anger 

(33) Horror 

(24) Amusement 

(25) In search of truth 

(26) Meditation 

(27) Reflection 

(34) Thought and sympathy 
Altruistic pain 

(29) Pity.. 

(28) Sympathy' 

(48) „ 

(49) Disgust (annoyed with oneself) 

(47) Hate 

(35) Horror 

(11) Attention 

(15) Interest 

(9) Surprise plus pleasurable feeling 

(12) Thought and annoyance 

(14) Contempt 3° approaching scorn 
2 ° 

»> ^ >> 

Suspicion (glimmering) 

(16) Suspicion and worry 

(13) „ „ dread 

(10) „ „ hate 

Thinking 

Grief 

(84) Attention leading to different degrees of suspicion 

(83) 


80 


82 


i 




XII 


188 Attention leading to different degrees of suspicion 

189 

190 (68) 

191 (86) Attention leading up to different degrees of laughter 

192 (85) 

193 

194 

195 (70) 

196 (69) Laughter 9 

197 Attention toward a catastrophe about to take place 

198 (78) Awe 

199 (77) Reverence 

200 
201 
202 

203 Attention leading to various degrees of fear 

204 (80) Awe with fear emphasized „ 

205 (79) Horror 

206 

207 

208 

PlateXVIII 209 Attention leading up to various degrees of wonder . . 
210 
211 

212 (81) (Wonder) 

213 

214 

215 Attention leading up to different grades of interest 

216 

217 

218 

219 

220 (76) (Admiration) „ 

221 Attention leading to different grades of anger 

222 

223 

224 

225 (66) (Aversion) „ 

226 (65) (Disgust) 

227 Attention leading to various grades of angry mood 

228 • „ „ 

229 „ „ 

230 „ „ 

231 (67) (Angry mood) „ „ 

232 

}} yy 

Plate XIX 233 Attention leading up to various grades of surprise . . 

234 (74) (Astonishment) „ 

235 

236 (71) (Amazement) 





XIII 


Page 



237 Attention leading up to various grades of surprise 

238 

239 Attention leading up to various grades of surprise 

240 (75) Surprise 

241 (73) Astonishment „ 

242 (72) Amazement „ 

243 

244 

245 Attention to an individual asking a question 

246 Thinking out the answer 

247 (56) The question answered 

248 (57) Thinking out an answer to another question 

249 (60) Attention 

250 Concentrated attention 

251 Attention leading up to various phases of jealousy 


252 

253 (58) 

254 (59) 

255 (61) Sneering 

256 

Plate XX 1 Attention and pleasure . . . . 

2 „ „ wonder 

3 „ „ suspicion 

4 „ „ sadness 

Plate XXI 257 Attention with a minimum of feeling 

258 ,, ,, n >» »> 

259 )i i) »» »> >> 

260 

»i >> »> » »* 

261 ,, » tt >» >» 

262 >> >» tt tt 

263 Attention plus ideas of laughter 

264 „ „ „ „ surprise 

265 „ „ „ „ suspicion 

266 „ n fear 

267 „ „ „ „ sadness 

268 „ „ tt tt religious 

Plate XXII 269 Attention and various degrees of pain 





270 

271 „ tt tt 

272 )) tt tt 

273 (38) (Physical suffering) „ 

274 (82) Relief 

275 Attention leading up to various degrees of religious feeling 


276 

277 

278 

279 , » 

280 tt tt 

281 » ” 


83 

4 


83 


106 









XIV 


282 

283 

284 

285 

286 


(17) Attention and religious feeling plus love 
(20) (Religious love) „ „ 


Pag( 


Plate 


Plate 


XXIII 287 
288 

289 

290 

291 

292 

293 

294 

295 

296 

297 Love: 

298 

XXIV 299 

300 

301 

302 

303 

304 


(19) Perplexity and suspicion. . 

(18) Suspicion 

(22) Pleasurable surprise 
(21) Tenderness and interest 
Laughter 

(23) Shrug of the shoulders 

Vanity (self-love) Attention directed toward self 
Sympathy „ „ „ a happy individual 

» » ,• „ suffering „ 

Pity: Attention directed toward a suffering individual 
•» » „ tt loving child 

» » » n tt individual 


107 


Plate 


Bad news . 

„Too bad” 

„It’s awful” 

„It’s terrible” 

„My God!” 

„It's awful!” 

305 „It’s terrible!” 

306 „What shall I do?” 

XXV 307 Good News: „l am real glad to hear” 


107 


308 

309 

310 

311 

312 

313 

314 


Plate 


„I am very glad” 
„Isn’t that fine!” 
„It’s great” 

„1 am happy” 

„I am so happy” 
„I am delighted” 
„lt’s great” 


107 


J I 315 Singing 

a 426 2/3 vibrations 

316 

>> 

b 480 

)) 

317 

>1 

c 512 

tt 

318 

>} 

d 576 

yy 

319 

ft 

e 640 

tt 

320 

tt 

f 701-1/3 

tt 

321 

tt 

g 768 

tt 

322 

tt 

a 853 

tt 

323 

tt 

b 960 

tt 

324 

tt 

c 1024 

tt 

325 

tt 

d 1152 

tt 

326 

tt 

e 1280 

tt 

327 

tt 

a 426—2/3 

tt 

328 

tt 

g 384 

tt 

329 

tt 

f 341—1/3 

tt 

330 


e 320 

tt 


205 



I 










Page 


331 Singing d 288 vibrations 


332 

c 256 

yy 


333 

b 227—1/2 

yy 


334 

a 213—1/3 

yy 


335 

g 102 

yy 


336 

t 170-2/3 

yy 


337 

e 160 

yy 


338 

d 144 

yy 


’late XXVII 339 

and pleasure 

a 426—2/3 vibrations 

340 

»> » 

b 480 


341 

»> »> 

c 512 


342 

>* >> 

d 576 

» 

343 

» »» 

e 640 

>> 

344 

j > » 

f 701-1/3 

*» 

* 345 

„ sadness 

a 426-2/3 


346 

(sadness) b 480 

>» 

347 

»» 

c 512 

»» 

348 

>» 

d 576 

»* 

349 


e 640 

>> 

350 

» 

f 701—1/3 

ff 

F’lateXXVIII 351 

(suprise) 

a 426—2/3 

yy • 

352 


b 480 

yy 

353 

>* 

c 512 

yy 

354 

» 

d 576 

yy 

355 

„ 

e 640 

yy 

356 

„ 

f 701—1/3 

yy 

357 

(fear) 

a 426-2/3 

yy 

358 

„ 

b 480 

yy 

359 

>> 

c 512 

yy 

360 


d 576 

yy 

361 


e 640 

yy 

362 


f 701—1/3 

yy 

363 

(contempt) 

a 426—2/3 

yy 

364 


b 480 

yy 

365 

» 

c 572 

yy 

366 

yy 

d 576 

yy 

367 

yy 

e 640 

yy 

368 

yy 

f 701—1/3 

yy 

Plate XXIX 369—374 

(Tenderness and sadness) four bars of , 

375—380 

(Laughter) 


ff 

381—384 

(Anger) 

„ 

ff 

385—386 

(Speaking) 

„ 

ft 

387—392 

(Fear) 

>> 

tt 


206 


206 


207 













t 


I 






/ 








1 







V 













Chapter 1 

Mental and Physical Facts 

i 

An Experience 0) 

On Dec. 17, 1911, about 4 o’clock in the afternoon, I was sitting 
comfortably in my cosy apartment reading Rolleston’s Life of Lessing 
when, all of a sudden, I was disturbed by loud cries in the street. 
Rising from my mission-stained chair, I walked toward the window, drew 
aside the lace curtains, and looked out. Two men in the street were 
shouting frantically „Extra! Extra! War with Russia!” As they hurried 
along, they would renew their clutch on the pink-colored newspapers 
which they carried. My friend who was with me at the time told me 
not to pay any attention to them, as they were no doubt merely trying 
to impose upon the public, a common trick of such venders, for which 
they were often arrested. 

I went back to the perusal of my book, but the cries of the two 
men haunted me. „Extra! Extra! War with Russia!” went through 
my mind persistently. Soon I was compelled to put my book, aside, 
and allow my imagination free sway. I saw vivid images of battles 
soldiers — nurses — gunpowder etc. I also thought of the Seven- 
Years’ War mentioned in the story of Lessing’s life. I even pictured 
the poor surgeon who was blown to pieces while bandaging Kleist’s 
leg. A kind of fear and horror went, through my being when I saw 
the mutilated soldiers of my imagination. At last, the recollection of 
my friend’s suggestion that the men were merely imposing upon the 
public brought me back to earth. 

The actual experience described above is given here to present a 
concrete example of a few moments of consciousness. ( 2 ) It is a well 
known fact that we know what is going on around us by the impressions 
we receive through our sensess. On the day of the occurence described, 

I was neither asleep nor unconscious, so not only did my senses register, 
but I was also aware of the ideas which were expressed in the book, 
of the tumult in the street, and the comfort of my home. My horror 
and fear of war, being stronger than my interest in the book, made me 
turn away from it to the different associations which were induced by 

Feelings and Emotions. 2 


2 



the street cries. Of course, had I not understood the language spoken 
by the news venders, their cries would have been merely noise, and 
had I no ears to hear, I would not have even heard the noise. 

In order to get accurate impressions, the human mechanism must 
be in perfect order. Just as it is impossible to get a good photopraph, 
or indeed any impression at all, with a broken camera, so it is impossible 
to get perfect impressions with an imperfect human mechanism. Injured 
nerves cannot carry messages to or from the brain. The eye, which at 
times has been compared to a camera, is not at all as perfect an 
instrument as we consider it. The microscope and telescope are much 
finer instruments. They detect things which the eye cannot. This 
means merely that the human body has physiological limits. 

Now, what has all this to do with experience? It is merely this: 
that in order to explain experience, we must have a thorough knowledge 
of psychology, physiology, physics and all the other sciences and arts, 
because the more we know, the more we can read into things. In this 
book, however, the stress is laid on the science of psychology, and only 
such slight mention will be made of the other sciences and arts as 
will be necessary to make clear the psychology of expression. ( 3 ) 

It is not my intention to analyse here my experience psychologically 
in detail, for such analyses have already been made in excellent text 
books by Thorndike, Woodworth, Judd, James, Pillsbury, Titchner, 
Yerkes, Warren, and many others. However, I shall give a general idea 
of the science, in order to enable the average reader to understand the 
few facts emphasized in this book. It may seem strange to some, and 
egotistical to others, that I should talk about myself, or in other words, 
my sensations, perceptions, images, memories, feelings, emotions etc. I shall 
explain why I do this. 

If I wish to communicate with you, I must express myself in some 
way or other, and here I have used „words”, which, in themselves, are 
a means of expression. These words were used for the purpose of 
expressing my thoughts and feelings. Now what are words, and what 
are thoughts and feelings? To answer these questions, we must enter 
the field of psychology, which is defined by some as the science of 
consciousness, and still by some others as the science of behavior. ( 4 ) 
No matter what terms they use, they all mean practically the same thing, 
that is, „a sort of shorthand phrase for all my thoughts and feelings.” ( 5 ) 
„!t may be assumed, I think,” says N. M. Butler in the introduction 
to Royce’s Psychology, „that the fundamental fact to be grasped in psycho¬ 
logy is what has been called the ’isolation of the individual mind.” Both 
Thorndike and Royce define psychology by contrasting the mental life 


3 




with all that is physical. Thorndike contrasts the physical world with 
the mental world. 

„The world is made up of physical and mental facts. On the one 
hand there are solids, liquids and gases, plants, trees and the bodies 
of animals, the stars and planets and their movements, the winds and 
clouds, and so on through the list of physical things and their 
movements. On the other hand are the thoughts and feelings of men 
and of other animals; ideas, opinions, memories, hopes, fears, pleasures 
pains, smells, tastes, and so on through the list of states of mind’ 
Physics, chemistry, astronomy, botany, zoology, geology and the other 
physical sciences deal with the former group of facts. Psychology, the 
science of mental facts or of mind, deals with the latter. Human 
psychology deals with the thoughts and feelings of human beings and 
seeks to explain the facts of intellect, character and personal life.” ( 6 ) 
Royce again contrasts our mental life with that of our physical life: 

„. . . . Our mental life, as opposed to our physical life, we mean 
a certain collection of states and of processes with which, from moment 
to moment, each one of us is, in his own case, very directly or 
immediately acquainted, while, on the other hand, it is impossible that 
any one else besides the original observer, whose mental life this is, 
should ever get this immediate sort of acquaintance with just this 
collection of state and processes. Herein, then, lies the essential 
characteristic of our mental life. Others may learn, from observing 
our acts and our words, a great deal about this, our own mental life; 
but each one of us is the only being capable of becoming directly aware 
of his own mental states . . . 

. . . While no two persons among us can ever observe the same 
series of mental facts and processes, psychological study is neverthe 
less made possible by the fact (a fact of the most fundamental importance) 
that we all of us not only have our mental states, but also appear to 
give these mental states a physical expression in certain bodily 
acts, viz., in what may be called our expressive functions.” ( 7 ) 

Thus we see the only way we can tell what is going on in each 
other’s mind is through expression of some kind, viz. facial expression, 
gestures, words or any other motor acts. In my narration, the lace 
curtains, the chair, the book, newspapers, window and bodies of men 
are physical facts, while the thoughts which my friend uttered, the 
thoughts and feelings expressed in the book, my thoughts, feelings, 
imaginations, memories are all mental facts. Although the world is 
made up of physical and mental facts, still every mental fact was at 
one time or other a physical one. To give a -concrete example, I will 

2 * 

i 


4 




take the physical object or fact „chair” (a piece of movable furniture) 
mentioned in my experience, and trace the different processes by which 
it becomes an idea or mental fact. And what can be done with the 
„chair” can be done with any other physical object. 

2 . 

Transition of a physical fact to that of a mental fact 

To trace the change of a physical object „ chair” to that of a mental 
or psychical fact, even in a rough general way, is not as easy a matter 
as it seems. The more information we have in regard to the workings 
of our own body and the Nervous System, the easier it will be to 
follow up the various tracts. ( 8 ) 

What is very important for us to realize is that we are endowed 
with a nervous mechanism, consisting of cells with fine, threadlike fibres 
attached to them, which is ready to act and feel, providing a stimulus 
strikes it. These inherited tendencies are named reflex circuits by the. 
physiologists; and instincts and emotions by the psychologists. 

A reflex circuit is the name given to involuntary movements pro¬ 
duced by a stimulus or excitation travelling from a sensory end organ 
along a sensory or afferent nerve to a centre in the brain or spinal 
cord, where it is turned back or reflected along motor nerves to muscles 
or glands. Fig. 1, gives us the diagram of the simplest kind of reflex 
action or circuit, and which is merely an arbitrary abstraction. 



The various photopraphic illustrations of the facial expressions of 
the emotions given in this book are involuntary movements or reflex 



circuits. According to William James, an emotion is a tendency to 
feel, and an instinct is a tendency to act characteristically when in the 
presence of a certain object in the environment. 


External and internal environments 

There are two environments to be considered, the ^internal” and 
the „external”. The internal sends messages by means of sensory or 
afferent fibres to the brain, recording the beating of the heart, the 
working of the lungs, the action of the muscles, and other organic 
changes. The external influences sensory end organs which send informa¬ 
tion, also by means of sensory fibres, to the brain recording disturbances 
which exist in the outer world- namely, light, heat, sound, movements 
of persons, animals, etc. The former gives the basis of knowledge of 
self or the internal world; the latter gives the basis of knowledge of 
objects, animals, or persons of the external world. 

We have spoken of the impressions that come to the mind, but 
the carrying of the messages to the brain is only one function of the 
nervous system. When such messages make their impressions, a 
response or reaction is set off which is either carried along over the 
nervous system to a muscle or gland, or is discharged into nervous 
cells modifying them, and sometimes influencing their future reactions. 
That is to say, that the response is either immediately expressed in 
action or is inhibited: The inhibition may be permanent or 
temporary. The nerves which carry the messages from the brain are 
called „motor fibres.” There are also „associating fibres which connect 
the sensory [and motor nerves. A very important thing for us to 
remember is that the cell receives the impressions, and the fibres 
merely carry the messages or disturbances to and from the brain. The 
experience of each action and feeling is registered and stored 
away for future use. The recall of these experiences is called 
memory. ( 9 ) 

In infancy, however, our consciousness is made up of a vague mass 
of sensations, and only gradually do we learn, by means indicated 
above, to perceive and discriminate objects as well as persons, and 
distinguish between self and selves. We are told that the seat of sen¬ 
sation is in the brain, and it is characteristic of sensation that is comes 
to consciousness by way of a special bodily organ, a sense organ. 
We are accustome,d to think that there are five of these senses: Eye, 
ear, nose, mouth and skin. Scientific investigation has shown, however, 
that there are more than four times that number. 


6 


If we can give a meaning to the sensation which reached our con¬ 
sciousness, we get a perception. A perception always stands for some 
object, and is present to the senses. For instance, when I am looking 
at a chair, and I know it is a chair, I have a perception of it. When 
the chair is not present to the senses, I may get an image of it. This 
image is a revival of original sensory experiences. From my images 
or imagination, I may design new chairs. Hence we see that we first 
become conscious of sensations, then perceptions, and following this, 
when objects are not present to the senses, we may get images. Then 
all our experiences of different kinds of „chairs” give us our concept 
of the class „chair.” The use of the word „chair” to designate the 
concept is a mere expedient of economy. All words are concepts and 
are tools of thought. With the aid of our concepts, we get our 
judgments. That is, we can say „This is a leather „chair,” which is a 
statement. Thus we see how from sensation we arrive at concept and 
then we come to judgment (a psychical fact). We can analyze a con¬ 
cept, a judgment into its elements, sensations. We have now seen 
the transition, in a rough general way, of a physical fact „chair” to 
that of a mental fact. We shall take up this thread of thought in the 
next chapter and observe more closely the transition of a physical 
fact, to that of a mental fact. Here we may add that long before we 
have learned to speak the word (in this case chair), our experiences 
with the physical objects were registered in the sensitive cells, associating 
fibres connecting the impressions received from the external fact „chair” 
with other experiences which went along with it in the environment 
i. e. table, floor, person, dog, cat, etc. For just as a camera cannot take 
an impression of a chair without some of its environment, such as the 
floor, or what happens to be on it or near it, so we cannot get an 
image or impression of a chair without other impressions thrusting 
themselves in. That is, we associate a chair with a table, a lounge, 
etc. (association through contiguity) or we may associate one chair with 
another (association through similarity). We have also other experiences 
with the chair. 

For instance, we may stub our toes, strike our shin bones and 
have other accidents causing pain. The chair may be uncomfortable 
or too comfortable. Then again we may receive a beautiful gift i. e a 
carved chair or one decorated artistically in any other way as with 
painting, embroidery or studded with stones, all of which would give 
us great pleasure. Our grandfather’s chair may affect us in a sen¬ 
timental way. The patriotic sentiment may also be aroused as 
through visiting George Washington’s home and seeing the chair upon 


7 




which he last sat. We may experience another kind of emotion, as 
fright or fear at seeing a large chair in the dark with perhaps a hat 
or coat carelessly thrust upon it. Or in this same case it may be an 
illusion, if we happened to expect some one to be sitting there. In 
our dreams we may have hallucinations. This is the name given to 
the consciousness of objects felt to be present, when as a matter of fact 
no object of any kind is at hand. In an illusion, we get a false 
perception, but an object is present to the senses. 

Just a few words here in regard to our verbal education. We do 
not remember the time when we received our first lessons in speaking 
the word chair, or any other word for that matter, no more than we 
remember our very first experiences with the physical object chair or 
any other object. However, our nervous system recorded every act 
and feeling. This we mentioned before, but it is so important for our 
purpose that it bears repetition. Briefly, we learned to speak the word 
chair by hearing it spoken, and imitating the movements of the lips. 
Then with the muscles of the larynx and the vibration of the vocal 
cords, we were able to produce what is called articulate speech. This 
accomplished, we have a „tool of thought”. Later we refine, strengthen, 
and make this tool more practical by learning how to spell, read 
and write the word chair. We find that the experiences in learning to 
speak, read or write the word are no other than our experiences with 
the chair proper which gave us our sensations, images, percepts, etc. 
The difference between the word and image is that the latter is photo¬ 
graphic, a copy of reality, while the former is symbolic. To recapitulate, 
the word „chair” stands, or is a conventional sign or symbol, for a 
piece of furniture; it is not a direct image of a chair, but is a symbol 
tagged on to represent all the masses of sensations experienced in 
relation to all the chairs with which we ever came in contact. When 
I say, „There is a chair,” you understand what I mean, because „chairs”, 
are common objects, and your experiences of them must have been 
similar to mine, and your concept about the same as mine. If, however, 
I were particularly interested in the subject of chairs, my concept would 
be quite different from yours, because I would devote more time to the 
subject and do what is called research work, that is, study as much as 
there is to be found out on the subject, and so become a specialist. 
It would not take me very long to find out that all the sciences and 
arts would become involved. The accumulation of all these varied ex¬ 
periences would give me my knowledge. This knowledge can be 
traced back to sensory experiences which, as mentioned before, were 
received by means of the nervous system. 


8 


3 . 

Transition of orgarnic facts to that of a mental fact. 

We have discussed in a very general way our mental experiences 
(thoughts and feelings) with the external object known as „ chair”; and 
since we have spent so much time in explaining the identity of chair, 
it would now be profitable to take an emotion, as „fear”, mentioned 
in our initial experience, and also in discussing our experiences with 
„ chair”. 

In the following chapters we shall consider the emotions in detail* 
Here we may state briefly that if we observe ourselves while experiencing 
the feeling or emotion of fear, we will find that every part of the body 
plays a distinct role in picturing the feeling state. If we are observing 
we will notice that a sense organ, an image or an idea is necessary 
to detect the exciting or emotion — producing fact, and then we will 
find that the body reacts as a whole — At one occasion we may run 
away; at another we may just stand still as if petrified and thus inhibiting 
nearly every movement in our body; and still at another, we may scream, 
crouch, shrink, tremble or start back from the fear-producing object or 
idea. However, although there are so many manifestations of fear due 
to the various objects and situations real or imaginary which condition- 
these feeling states, the picture of fear as seen in the face is easily 
recognized as such, and is known as the natural or universal language, 
and understood by any normal individual in all parts of the world. 
In fact, we may safely say that animals and men have experienced the 
state known as „fear” long before a name or word was given to the 
concept known as fear, dust as the word „chair” is a concept and 
represents the various kinds of chairs, so the word „fear” is a concept, 
and represents the various kinds of fears which we and other individuals 
or animals may experience. 

It was previously stated that we have a set of nerves which carry 
information of external objects, and also a set of nerves which convey 
information of internal states. The former give us the knowledge of 
the external world, as „chair”; and the latter give us the knowledge 
of the internal world, as „fear”. In other words, „chair” stands for the 
representation of facts of the external world, while fear stands for the 
representation of facts of the internal world. We must remember, 
however, that we may get images of the external expressions of the 
emotions. All we need to do is to look in a mirror and observe our 
own expression. Let us just think of smiling, and before we are aware 
of the fact we will see a smiling countenance reflected, and just as we 


9 


observe ourselves, vve may observe others. Thus we see that the words 
expressing feeling or emotion stand for organic facts, which may be 
known to us by the reverberation of our own body, or by the expression 
of such reverberations in our own body or that of others. We may, 
therefore, conclude that the experiences which lead to the knowledge 
of the external facts as of „chair”, are no different from the experiences 
which give us our feelings and knowledge of the internal facts known 
as feelings or emotions. The fact is, it is through SENSATION that 
we derive the knowledge of the external world; and it is through 
SENSATION that we gain the knowledge of the internal, world, which 
includes the feelings and emotions. 

4. 

Consciousness 

Let us now go back to our initial experience which was given as 
an example of a few moments of consciousness, and which was expressed 
by means of over 260 words. We extracted the two words „chair” 
and „fear”, (as a sample) and traced the former from a physical fact, 
chair to that of a mental or psychical fact, which, when reduced to 
lowest terms were a mass of sensations; and the latter we traced also 
from organic facts to mental or psychical facts. We have spent so 
much time in the identification of the „word”, because as we shall see 
later on it has been used as a tool to revive the sensory and organic 
experiences in order to give concrete examples of consciousness (thoughts, 
feelings and emotions), and at the same time, to show that language, 
taken in the broadest sense of the term, is subject matter of psychology, 
because it is the expression of mental states or consciousness. 

We will now define consciousness, and knowing that the word 
consciousness merely stands for the whole subject matter of psycho¬ 
logy, we will recognize the difficulty psychologists have in defining the 
term. Angel! says that consciousness we can only define in terms of 
itself. Sensations, ideas, pains, pleasures, acts of memory, imagination, 
and will — these may serve to illustrate the experiences we mean to 
indicate by the term, and our best endeavor to construct a successful 
definition results in some such list, of which we can only say: „These 
taken together are what I mean by consciousness.” A psychological 
treatise is really an attempt to furnish the essentials for such a catalogue.” 

We will readily see that all the facts given above in defining 
consciousness, may be found in my experience related at the beginning 
of the chapter. All these facts are psychical facts. Now what are 
psychical facts? 


10 


> 

„A psychical fact is a fact of consciousness; but what is consci¬ 
ousness? Properly speaking, definition is impossible. Everybody knows 
what consciousness is, because everybody is conscious. It is not, 
however, enough simply to say this. Confusion would be sure to 
arise if we passed the question by in this manner.” 

„Wherever there is not total unconsciousness in the sense in which 
we attribute unconsciousness to a table or a in log of wood, consci¬ 
ousness in some mode or degree is present. As Professor Balwin says? 
it is ,the common and necessary form of all mental states; ... it is 
the point of division between mind and not-mind.’ To quote Professor 
Ladd: ,What we are when we are awake, as contrasted with what we 
are when we sink into a profound and perfectly dreamless sleep, . . . 
that it is to be conscious. What we are less and less, as we sink 
gradually down into dreamless sleep, or as we swoon slowly away: 
and what we are more and more, as the noise of the crowd outside 
tardily arouses us from our after-dinner nap, or as we come out of the 
midnight darkness of the typhoid-fever crisis—’ that is consciousness. 
The becoming conscious and the becoming unconscious are in all their 
phases and gradations states of consiousness . . . The very dimmest and 
vaguest feeling accompanying the last stage of sinking into dreamless sleep, 
or the first stage of gradual awakening, is already consciousness.” (Stout) 

Photographic illustrations may be an aid in defrning consciousness, 
Photograph 1 shows A. F. asleep; Photo 2 in a deeper stage of sleep. 
Photo 3, the beginning of consciousness or awareness. Photo 4, represents 
A. F. reading (voluntary attention). Photo 5, aroused by loud cries in 
the street (Involuntary attention). Photo 6, represents the expression of 
joy, an emotion. These are all facts of consciousness. 

Before discussing these photographs, it may be here convenient to give 
the methods used by both physiologists and psychologists in acquiring 
their knowledge, because as mentioned before a thorough knowledge of 
the Nervous Mechanism is needed to comprehend psychical states and 
their expression. However, not to make it too complicated we will 
give in Note ( 10 ) a detailed account, and here give briefly the important 
psychological methods. The three most important methods are: (1) 
Introspection, the study of my own mind. (2) Observation, the study 
of minds of others, which may include biography, autobiography and 
all literature (as we have seen imagination whether productive or 
reproductive is the subject matter of psychology). It also includes the 
study of the mind of the animal, child, adult, society, and the mind of 
the insane. (3) Experimental method, where an observation may be 
repeated and controlled. All these methods are supplemented by delicate 


Plate I 


No. 3 No. 2 No. .1 













- • I 


























*. 








4 




























































» 




• • 












. 




* • 


• - / 

I ‘ : ' * - ^ 

- 






















. 

* 

* 





















' 

1 - ‘ ‘ * „ * • 

. 














' 




















1 





















. 

















































\ 




■ 






. 

























































7 


— 11 — 

instruments which record the various mental states such as the camera, 
and all the other sensitive instruments as used in both the physiological 
and psychological laboratories. Titchner says that „ Scientific method ^ 
may be summed up in the single word observation;” the only way to 
work in science is to observe those phenomena which form the subject- 
matter of science. And observation implies two things, attention to the 
phenomena, and record of the phenomena; that is, clear and vivid 
experience, and an account of the experience in words or formulas.” 

„In order to secure clear experience and accurate report, science 
has recourse to experiment. An experiment is an observation that can 
be repeated, isolated, and varied. The more frequently you can repeat 
an observation, the more likely are you to see clearly what is there, and 
to describe accurately what you have seen ... All experimental 
appliances, all laboratories and instruments, are provided and devised 
with this one end in view: that the student shall be able to repeat, 
isolate and vary his observation. — 

The method of psychology, then, is observation . . .” 

We will begin this method by observing more closely photo¬ 
graphs 1 and 2, which are images of sleep, copies of the reality, as 
these as well as all the other photographs in this book have not been 
retouched. Photo 1 seems to be a lighter sleep than 2. Note the 
difference between the word „sleep”, and the image of „sleep”. 

If, upon looking upon these photographs, we recognize that it is the 
image of sleep, it is due to the revival of sensory experiences for, 
as we have emphasized so often, we first get our sensations, whether 
of chair, or a sleeping person and later our perceptions and images. 
After getting our images, we may express them by painting, drawing, 
or carving them or by using words describing the experiences. We thus 
see that it is absolutely necessary to change our psychical facts to 
physical facts by means of our bodily organs in order to express our 
mental states. 

It is not the usual thing to fall asleep in a chair, as represented 
in photographs Nos. 1 and 2, but experience has taught us that it is 
possible. We find that individuals fall asleep when very tired, or when 
the atmosphere is too warm, or when there is a great deal of monotony, 
as while travelling in railroad cars, or while attending lecture, theatre, 
church, etc. Then again we hear of individuals walking, speaking, 
singing in their sleep. Others, again, may have a dreamless sleep, 
some may have a troubled sleep. Besides all the various external ex¬ 
periences we have with sleep, we have also our own experiences with 
it. When we sleep we experience it, for the heart and lungs keep on 


12 


J 

registering their actions and feelings, and when we dream, we very 
often remember it, and may talk about these dreams as we would talk 
of actual facts. We know when we have had a dreamless sleep, for 
it may happen that we say „I had a fine sleep, or I slept like a log; 

1 feel refreshed.” Other times again we may say „/Y\y, what terrible 
dreams!” or something to that effect, and perhaps feel oppressed the 
rest of the day. 

It has before been mentioned that the more we know, the farther 
we can see into things. This fact is so important that we will take 
the images of sleep as a sample and show how different individuals 
express themselves so as to impart to us what is in their minds; and 
at the same time we will accumulate some knowledge on the subject 
of sleep, which, of course, includes dreams. We will not reproduce 
photographs of paintings, engravings, sculpture, etc., but will merely 
state that all artists and scientists ( n ) have as their common background 
images (sensory experiences) and while the scientist aims at truth, the 
artist, at times, is compelled to veil or clothe the real facts and thus 
productive imagination is employed, i. e. dramatists, novelists, etc., express 
what they have to say through characters which they create and speak 
through them. 

A scientific discussion of sleep. 

We will first quote a part of Maudsley’s scientific discussion of 
sleep. „As we pass nearly the third part of our short lives in sleep 
it is pleasing to think that the time so spent is not misspent nor lost. 
Sleep marks that periodical suspension of the functions of animal life, 
or life of relation, during which the organs that minister to them undergo 
the restoration of energy which is necessary after a period of activity. 
Waste of substance, which is the condition and the result of active 
exercise of function, must be repaired during rest; instead of its being 
a surprise, therefore, that we sleep, the wonder would be if we did not 
sleep. In the work and thought of the day is given out by degrees 
the energy which has been stored up during repose. The need of repair 
is as true of the organic functions, which never seem to sleep, as it 
is of the animal functions, which sleep through so large a proportion 
of our lives. For although an organ like the heart seems not to rest 
day or night from the first moment of action unto the last moment 
when it ceases to beat more, yet it plainly rests between each stroke, 
gaining thereby in alternating snatches of repose the energy for the 
next stroke; and it is really at rest during a longer period than it is in 
action-—has rested more than it has worked when its life—work is ended .. 


13 


The conditions under which we go to sleep, the causes which 
promote it, and the ill effects which follow the deprivation thereof, are 
proofs of its true purpose in the animal economy. When we wish 
to sleep we shut out all external stimuli, as a bird puts its head under 
its wing. We banish all subjects of active thought or feeling, and place 
our bodies in as complete a state of muscular repose as possible: so 
sleep comes on insensibly as a deeper rest, not as an abrupt change, 
stealing upon us as darkness upon daylight. The general causes which 
produce it are such as exhaust the energy of the nervous system, either 
through suffering or doing, and so occasion fatigue of body and mind; 
they are muscular and mental exertions, when not to prolonged, the 
weariness which follows great emotional strain, when not too intense, 
and severe bodily pain. It is true that we may, by a strong voluntary 
effort, or under the spell of an excitement, prolong the usual period of 
waking, and resist sleep, although we are very sleepy. But we cannot 
do so indefinitely, for torpor and incapacity of mental function, delirium, 
and death are the consequences of an entire deprivation of sleep.” 

The latter part of this statement may be reinforced by reading a 
poem, which embodies the same ideas and written by a genius Kirke 
White, who died at the age of 21. „How much truth and feeling are 
there in the lines which he wrote after spending a whole night in study, 
a moment when religious impressions force themselves with irresistible 
weight on the exhausted mind!” 

Poetic discussion of sleep 

„Oh! when reflecting on these truths sublime, 

How insignificant do all the joys, 

The gauds, and honours of the world appear! 

How vain ambition! — Why has my wakeful lamp 
Outwatched the slow-paced night? — Why on the page, 

The schoolman’s labour’d page, have I employed 
The hours devoted by the world to rest, 

And needful to recruit exhausted nature? 

Say, can the voice of narrow Fame repay 
The loss of health? or can the hope of glory 
Send a new throb unto my languid heart, 

Cool, even now, my feverish aching brow, 

Relume the fires of this deep-sunken eye, 

Or paint new colours on this pallid' cheek?” 

Most of Kirke White’s poems were written before he was nineteen 
and we may consider the preface written on his book of Miscellaneous, 


Poems as an introspection and of great interest to us psychologically 
He says: . . . „The author is very conscious that the juvenile efforts 
of a youth, who has not received the polish of Academical discipline, 
and who has been but sparingly blessed with opportunities for the 
prosecution of scholastic pursuits, must necessarily be defective in the 
accuracy and finished elegance which mark the works of the man wha 
has passed his life in the retirement of his study, furnishing his mind 
with images, and at the same time attaining the power of disposing 
those images to the best advantage.” 

The study of such a great mind may be as profitable to the psy¬ 
chologist as to the student of English literature. Although a poet, he 
knew that he must fill his mind with images and also learn how to 
manipulate them by means of training. 

We will now turn to a description of sleep — as given by Shake¬ 
speare in Macbeth. The sleep-walking scene of Lady Macbeth is of 
great interest to us because we have the picture of an individual who 
talks, walks and acts in her sleep, thus expressing consciousness. 
The only way we could know of such a fact is by observing it our¬ 
selves or by having some one else tell us about it. To do this Shake¬ 
speare introduced two other characters, as will be seen in the following 
description. 

Dramatic discussion of sleep 

Scene — Ante-room in the castle. Enter a Doctor of Physics and a Waiting-Gentle-woman. 

Enter Lady Macbeth* with a taper. 

Gentle-woman. Lo you, here she comes! This is her very guise, 
and, upon my life, fast asleep. Observe her; stand close. 

Doctor. How came she by that light? 

Gentle-woman. Why, it stood by her: she has a light by her 
continually; ’tis her command. 

Doctor. You see, her eyes are open. 

Gentle-woman. Ay, but their sense is shut. 

Doctor. What is it she does now? Look, how she rubs her hands. 

Gentle-woman. It is an accustomed action with her, to seem 
thus washing her hands: I have known her continue in this a quarter 
of an hour. 

Lady Macbeth. Yet here’s a spot. 

Doctor. Hark! She speaks: I will set down what comes from her, 
to satisfy my remembrance the more strongly. 

Lady Macbeth. Out, damned spot! out, I say! One: two: why, 
then ’tis time to do it. Hell is murky. Fie, my lord, fie! a soldier, and 


15 


afeard? What need we fear who knows it, when none can tell our power 
to account? Yet who would have thought the old man to have had so 
much blood in him? 

Doctor. Do you mark that? 

Lady Macbeth. The thane of Fife had a wife; where is she now? 
What, will these hands ne’er be clean? No more o’ that, my lord, no 
more, o’ that: you mar all with this starting. 

Doctor. Go to, go to; you have known what you schould not. 

Gentle-woman. She has spoke what she should not, I am sure 
of that: Heaven knows what she has known. 

Lady Macbeth. Here’s the smell of the blood still: all the perfumes 
of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh, oh, oh! 

Doctor. What a sigh is there! The heart is sorely charged. 

Gentle-woman. I would not have such a heart in my bosom for 
the dignity of the whole body. 

Doctor. Well, well, well; — 

Gentle-woman. Pray God it be, sir. 

Doctor. This disease is beyond my practice: yet 1 have known 
those which have walked in their sleep who have died holily in their beds. 

Lady Macbeth. Wash your hands; put on you nightgown; look 
not so pale: I tell you again, Banqou’s burned: he cannot come out 
on’s grave. 

Doctor. Even so? 

Lady Macbeth. To bed, to bed; there’s knocking at the gate: 
come, come, come, come, give me your hand: what’s done cannot be 
undone: to bed, to bed, to bed. 

Doctor. Will she go now to bed? 

Gentle-woman. Directly. 

Doctor. 

Foul whisperings are abroad: unnatural deeds 
Do breed unnatural troubles: infected minds 
To their deaf pillows will discharge their secrets: 

More needs she the divine than the physician. 

God, God forgive us all! Look after her; 

Remove from her the means of all annoyance 
And still keep eyes upon her. So good night: 

My mind she has mated and amazed my sight: 

„1 think, but dare not speak.” 

We have here a typical example of the impression of a terrible deed 
upon a Nervous System. As we so often emphasized, every act and every 


16 


feeling is recorded, and here Shakespeare shows us in the most admirable 
manner the ice-cold, stony Lady Macbeth who may be so by day, bul 
at night the terrible deed is brought up again and robs the guilty one 
of peaceful sleep and health. Shakespeare wished to convey a truth and 
a moral lesson at the same time when he depicted the ruin of Lady 
Macbeth in this incomparable sleep-walking scene. 

It may be interesting to compare with Freud’s theory of dreams, 
Lady Macbeth’s dream in which she is afflicted with past memories, 
especially the memory of one stain of blood upon her little hand. 

Psychoanalytic discussion of sleep 

„Freud has been foremost in the investigation of the mechanism 
of dreams. According to him, the dreamer lives in another world. 
This dream world consists merely of his distorted waking experiences, 
whether these are the suppressed, painful memories of the waking life 
or whether they consist of experiences of which the waking individual 
is not aware. Like the delusions and hallucinations of the insane, 
dreams have their origin in our waking experiences; we cannot dream 
of things which we do not know, or which we have not actually experi¬ 
enced ourselves. Of course, we may be unable to trace the origin of 
a particular dream, especially if it is a long dormant memory of a 
subconscious episode. This ,tremendous scenery which peoples dreams’ 
must at some time or another in the past have been registered in our 
brain, in the same way that the cylinder of a phonograph registers 
vibrations, to be later reproduced as articulate language. Dreams, 
therefore, are memories of previous experiences, no matter how distorted 
or fantastic they may appear. These memories are often very vivid in 
dreams, more vivid than the memories of the waking life. ( 12 ) 

Before leaving the subject of sleep and dreams, we must not omit 
Angelo Mosso’s observations on the brain during sleep. Compare this 
great scientist’s statements with the scientific statement in Note ( 13 ). We 
find, besides the bare cold facts, he gives vent to his feelings at the 
same time, thus giving us an inkling of the workings of the scientific 
mind. 

Experimental discussion of sleep 

„I know that every experimental work possesses an interesting 
side, which is quite lost owing to the avidity and severity with which 
scientific treatises are written, and I therefore abandon myself to the 
recollections of my investigations careless of following the style of popular 
scientific books.” 


17 


tie begins his first description of a sad case as follows: „The first 
work which I published upon the circulation of blood in the human brain 
brings sad recollections to me . . tie goes on with the description 
which is really gruesome and then says: 

„It was after hearing from this unhappy woman the story of her 
misfortune, and during the intense emotion which pity for her aroused, 
that I saw for the firet time, through the fissures of the decayed bones, 
the movement of the uncovered brain. Even to-day, eight years later, 
when I think of that moment, a shiver runs over me as it did then.” 
This statement is of great importance to us, because Mosso’s experience 
shows us that a past thought with its emotion may be revived after eight 
years. That Mosso considered the impressionability of the Nervous 
System of the greatest importance may be seen by the following quotation. 

„The aptitude of the nerve-cells to accumulate and preserve external 
impressions is such a leading fact in physiology that I do not know 
any more important one.” 

To come back to his observations on the brain made possible by 
injuries to the skull, he says: 

Chance furthered the continuation of these observations, new 
opportunities for this study soon offering themselves in Turin and 
elsewhere . .. 

„fiow anxious and agitated we are when we enter upon a new field 
of science; when, at every step, the doubt arises whether some important 
phenomenon may not have escaped us! How we are tormented by the 
fear of not being able to face the most vital questions, nor to find out 
those phenomena most fruitful in results and most subtile! What trepidation 
overcomes one before one writes down even a few lines in the book of 
science! 

„Even amongst physicians it is not easy to find any who are able 
to write down the history of any fact or observation. The majority of 
them know only how to relate things in the same dogmatic words with 
which they are described in treatises, and only a few take the trouble 
to examine the development of an idea. And yet, in the study of human 
nature there is nothing more interesting than to follow the different 
phases of a problem, to see whence a thought arose, to know the first 
means by which nature was interrogated; then the sudden changes of 
method, the incidents, the errors and corrections, and at last the victory 
which crowns our labour and wins a fact for science. I believe if it 
could be seen near at hand how a research develops in the laboratories, 
the followers of the experimental sciences would be greater in number. 

Feelings and Emotions. 3 


18 


„ It is a work of patience. The only difficulty consists in gradually 
learning the language of Nature, in finding out the way to interrogate 
her and compel her to reply. In this struggle, in which we, humble 
pigmies, fight continually in order to wrest from Life its secret, there 
are moments of intoxicating emotion, rays of light amongst shadows, 
which excite the imagination of the scholar and the artist.”( u ) 

We thus see that Mosso spells out his own personality in his 
writings. He is not only a great scholar and artist, but the great 
scientist who made valuable discoveries for physiology as well as for 
psychology. Stratton, in his Experimental Psychology and Culture shows 
the importance of his contribution to psychology: 

osso, the famous Italian physiologist, experimenting on several 
unfortunates whose brains had been laid bare by accident or by necessary 
surgical operation, was able to take tracings of the changes of volume 
of the brain under different mental conditions. He found there an 
increase of mental action is signalized by a sudden increase in the size 
of the brain, due, no doubt, to the added amount of blood which is 
immediately forced upon it.” * 




Fig. 2. Record of brain pulse during sleep. At the point marked by the arrow, 
the subject’s name is called, without, however, awakening him. (From Mosso.) 

The accompanying record was taken during experiments on Bertino, 
an Italian peasant, by means of the Plethysmograph, a delicate instrument 
of Mosso’s own invention. 

„This record was taken while Bertino was asleep, and shows the 
effect upon his brain produced by calling his name aloud, at the arrow,, 
yet without awakening him. Not only does the volume of the brain 
change, as shown by the general rise of the curve, but the individual 
waves have a different form, having elevations on both sides of the 
crest, whereas before this stimulation the extreme left hand elevation of 
each was the highest. .. 

„The result of all this, and of much more of the same kind, is to* 
bring about the conviction that body and mind are in most intimate 
connection, and that the intercourse of the two is not occasional, but 
is constant. Formerly we believed that some strong emotional excitement, 
or a definite act of will, must be present if there was to be any manifest 
expression of the mental state. But it is now generally accepted that 



19 


the body reflects every shade of psychic operation; that in all manner 
of mental action there is some physical expression . . . Innocent as all 
this may seem, it has in reality revolutionized our view of expression, 
and of its influence upon mental states. We used to suppose that the 
bodily expression of what was going on in the mind was of no great 
importance as far as the mind was concerned; that in the case of fear, 
for instance, there would still be fear even if there were no palpitation 
of the heart, no pallor, . . . But we now know better; we know that this 
outward physical expression, as we call it, is a most important thing; 
it makes the fear real. The feeling of what is occurring in our veins 
and muscles rolls back upon the mind and gives the mental state 
definiteness and' ,body’. Without the physical concomitants and the 
feelings they arouse, the mental process would be pale and shadowy. 
Half the fun of a joke, therefore, is in the laughter; half the sadness 
of sorrow comes from an actual depression of body — a weight of 
physical distress . . . 

„The mental state and its expression are one and inseparable 

We may thus conclude that in studying the expression of sleep we 
are studying mental states where there is consciousness but no awareness 
of it. Photograph 3 represents the expression of a little awareness or 
the beginning of consciousness. „The mind may be described as often 
in a state of diffuse consciousness. We see things without noticing 
them, we hear sounds without understanding them.” When we intensify 
consciousness by concentrating it upon an object (as in photo 4), we 
are said to attend to that object. This is what psychologists name 
Voluntary attention. That is, it „is that condition of the mind in which 
it puts forth effort under the impulse of desire.” 

Photograph 5, gives a representation of non-voluntary or involuntary 
attention which „is that condition (mainly passive) of the mind in which 
it is acted upon by the mere force of the stimulus presented.” 

Photo 6, gives us the representation of the expression of joy, wich 
is an intense feeling of pleasure. The expression of the mental states 
will be made clearer in the following chapters as the balance of the 
book is given up to it. 

Let us now turn again to our initial experience and apply Photos 
4 and 5 to it. In photo 4, A. F. is sitting comfortably reading. We 
cannot tell by the photograph whether she is reading Rolleston’s Life 
of Lessing, or some other book. However, what we do see is that she 
is reading attentively, and her words in which she described her experience 
would tell us exactly what she was reading. Photograph 5 shows how 
she is disturbed by the loud cries in the street. We find that since 

3* 


20 


the disturbance, A. F. cannot pay close attention to her book, but allows 
her imagination free sway. That is, she showed inattention to the 
book, but attention to her own images. 

Here again we may state that the more we know the more we can 
see into things. If we knew exactly all the impressions and experiences 
of A. F. which called up so vividly the images described in the experience, 
we would find that the stimulus from the street rather reinforced or 
made more vivid the thoughts described in the book. All the thoughts, 
ideas or images which A. F. received in regard to Lessing were by means 
of language. This was either written by Lessing himself in his works 
or correspondence, or by biographers or other writers who were stimulated 
and enlightened by his works; such as Goethe, Lowell, etc., thus handing 
his thoughts and feelings down to posterity. This is what we call our 
social inheritance. 

Now let us see the connection between the life of' Lessing, the 
impostors in the street, and the vivid imagination described in the 
experience. The name of Russia brought up the fact that Lessing’s 
ancestors were Slavs. Then again the poverty which was represented 
by the men in the street compared with the noble poverty of Lessing. 
Von Kleist, who was mentioned in the images, was in reality a great 
friend of Lessing’s, and an historical character. To get an inkling of 
just a few more ideas by which A. F. was impressed and which are of 
great importance to the analysis of the few moments of consciousness 
as described in the experience, we may quote Lessing’s letter written to 
his father, the 21st of December 1767: 

„If I write at all, it is not possible for me to write otherwise than 
just as I think and feel.” 

And again James Russell Lowell who writes so enthusiastically 
about him says: „My respect for what Lessing was, and for what he 
did, is profound. In the history of literature it would be hard to find 
a man so stalwart, so kindly, so sincere, so capable of great ideas, 
whether in their influence on the intellect or the life, so unswervingly 
true to truth, so free from the common weaknesses of his class. Since 
Luther, Germany has given birth to no such intellectual athlete, no son 
so German to the core. Greater poets she has had, but no greater 
writer; no nature more finely tempered. Nay, may we not say that great 
character is as rare a thing as great genius, even if it be not a nobler 
form of it? . . . But the man Lessing, harassed and striving life-long, 
always poor and always hopeful,. . . and who, through all, was faithful to 
himself, to his friend, to his duty, and to his ideal, is something more 




21 


inspiring for us than the most glorious utterance of merely intellectual 
power.” ( 15 ) 

It is not surprising, therefore, that the associations of this wonderful 
man’s friend, Von Kleist, and the surgeon who was blown to pieces 
while bandaging his leg, should be again brought so vividly to consci¬ 
ousness. The Extra! Extra! and the war cry induced the other associations 
connected with war. 

Thus we see how it is possible to employ science, art, drama etc., 
in explaining consciousness, because the psychical fact, image, imagination, 
idea — or whatever you wish to call it, is common to all normal individuals, 
and it depends upon the sensitivity of the nervous system, of the images 
in our minds, and it is the manner in which we are able to manipulate 
them that distinguishes the scientist or artist from the ordinary person. 

In the beginning of the chapter, we narrated an experience which 
represented a few moments of consciousness. We also said that we 
used words in order to communicate these facts. Using words in this 
way would bring us under what is called „The Art of Rhetoric,” and 
since we have emphasized the fact that the fundamental background of 
an artist or scientist is the image, imagination or idea, it may be 
profitable to quote G. R. Carpenter on the art of Rhetoric, in order to 
emphasize the aforementioned statements. 

„Rhetoric is the art of telling some one else by words precisely 
what you mean to say. A definition in such colloquial language may 
seem so obvious as to be almost unnecessary, but let us be sure that 
we understand it in its full force. 

„First. Why do we say ,telling some one else by words’? Because, 
if you stop to think of it, you will see that there are a number of other 
ways besides language by which people communicate with one another 
They may communicate ideas or emotions by music, for instance, or b.y 
painting, or by sculpture, or, to a certain extent, by architecture. The 
painter uses as his medium color; the sculptor, stone; the musician, 
sound; the architect, various solid materials. The laws or principles 
that the painter must follow, then, are those which have to do with 
colors, and which depend on their chemical properties; in short, between 
the eye of the man who sees and the hand of the man who paints. 
So, too, the fundamental principles of the sculptor’s art depend in the 
last resort upon the nature and structure of stone and such solid materials 
as he uses. The art of the painter or the sculptor thus differs from 
ours in that he uses colors or solid materials as a medium of expression, 
whereas we use words. Our art, then, Rhetoric, has little or nothing 


22 


to do with other sorts of expression. It is plainly and simply the art 
of expressing thought or feeling by words.” 

„But there is another part of the definition we should thoroughly 
understand. Rhetoric is the art of saying by words just what we mean. 
Why the art? Why not the science? A science is something you 
know or understand without necessarily practising it. An art is something 
which you do, which you practise . .. The essential’part of Rhetoric is 
that you should act, that you should practise the art you are 
learning.” 

Thus we are convinced that thoughts and feelings are the background 
of all the arts, and that the art of rhetoric teaches us how to refine 
the tools (words) with which scientists express their thoughts and 
feelings. We may conclude, therefore, that psychology, besides having 
its own subject matter consciousness”, must take into consideration all 
the subject matter of all the sciences and arts, since they are all 
expressions of consciousness (thoughts and feelings). 

The complexity of consciousness and its expression are reflected 
in the complexity of the explanation of it as given in this chapter. 
Thorndike says: „Although to study the body of thought and feeling of 
a human life, we dissect it out into this, that and the other specially 
named kinds of mental facts, we must not forget that in reality a mental 
life is a series of confused mixtures of thought-stuff, a rich blending 
of various elements, and that often all the names so far given .to denote 
different sorts of mental fact would be needed to describe the mental 
state of a man for a single minute. Mental life is not like a series of 
solos, now sensations, now memories, now decisions; but is like the 
performance of an orchestra in which many sounds fuse into a total. 
One instrument may predominate for a while, but only very rarely is 
it active alone.” ( 16 ) 



Chapter Ii 

Sensation and Feeling-Emotion 

1 

An infant’s and an adult’s experience 

In the previous chapter, we traced the transition of a physical fact 
to that of a psychical or mental fact, and at the same time reduced an 
^experience”, which expressed a few moments of consciousness, to its 
lowest terms — sensations. These facts were discussed so inadequately 
that we mentioned that we would pick up this thread of thought and 
elaborate it. The best way to do this, perhaps, is to begin with the 
newborn infant as studied and observed by scientists who have recorded 
the facts. 

„The most striking thing about a newborn infant is his absolute 
helplessness, fie compares most unfavorably with a newborn lamb or 
a pup . .. 

„Let us observe the young baby more closely, with a view to 
discovering more exactly what his initial equipment is. We notice at 
once how large a proportion of his life is spent in sleep; but alike when 
he is asleep and awake, the movements of his heart, of his breathing 
and digestive apparatus, complicated as they are, go on automatically. 
Again, if you place your finger in his, he grasps them; if his throat tickles 
he coughs; he sneezes also perfectly. When he is hungry he wakes 
and cries. If you put your finger in his mouth, he stops crying and 
sucks hard for a short time, only to cry again when satisfaction does 
not come. The infant has not learned to do any of these things, tie 
has inherited the machinery which makes them possible, and the sensitiveness 
to external stimuli which sets the machinery in motion .. . Movements 
of the kind indicated we call either reflex or instinctive movements. 

„. .. We notice that the little one has eyes, ears, nose, and hands 
like our own, but that he does not look or listen or touch or smell things 
as we do . . . The newborn baby is a mere bundle of possibilities of 
development, which takes its start in the reflex, instinctive, or random 
movements just mentioned, and in the sensitiveness to sensory stimuli 
which many of these movements presuppose. We must not, however, 
suppose that these stimuli produce results in the infant’s consciousness 


24 


such as they would produce in ours. We have learned by experience 
to recognize and classify impressions as impressions of sound, sight 
touch, etc. The babe has had no such experience, and his sense-impressions 
must be a confused, almost meaningless series, which life alone will clear 
up and make significant. 

„It is not, however, very long before the infant begins to make 
distinct progress. Before he is a month old he takes up amusingly 
definite attitudes towards particular sensory objects. He prefers sweet 
food, and refuses what is acid or bitter. The expression of his likes and 
dislikes becomes more and more definite, and we cannot miss the meaning 
of the movements of his lips and tongue by the time he is three months 
old. Loud noises commonly frighten him at a very early age; fear or 
discomfort often makes him cry . . . 

„With the advancing weeks the movements of his arms and legs 
grow more and more vigorous, but they do not quickly become purposeful, 
or even thoroughly cor-ordinated. He can perhaps hold a rattle in his 
hand, and the spasmodic movements of his hand make it’speak’. The 
sound is attractive to him — his eyes open widely, he is absorbed in 
vague wonder, but he does not connect the sound at first with his movements 
or even with the object. This is typical of his whole experience, which 
is but a varied play of sense, continuous but bearing no intelligible 
message, giving organic pleasure or pain, as the case may be, but having 
no further meaning for him. Bright colours, noises, musical sounds, 
warmth and cold, and the like all affect him. He smiles or crows, cries 
or goes to sleep under their influence, but he has still to learn what 
those pleasant or unpleasant happenings really mean. 

... the cry enables the infant to communicate with people about 
him, but he does not cry because he knows this to be so. He cannot 
help crying; it is an inherited tendency, not an individual invention. 
The nervous machinery which produces the cry stops working when 
orgarnic comfort has been restored. But the restoration of comfort has 
been accompanied by other sensory experiences. 

„His environment comes gradually to be systemmatized in the same 
way. His mother, his nurse, his bottle, his cot, his chair, and so forth 
are each the centre of pleasurable sensory experiences of greater or less 
complexity.” (*) 

We will now give (in note 2) the data of the first seven days of 
an infant’s experiences as recorded by Preyer and Dearborn. ( 2 ) Mrs Moore, 
Miss Shinn and others have also made observations upon individual 
infants. We find that each newborn infant has‘inherited the nervous 
mechanism with which he reacts to external as well as internal stimuli, 


and that there are individual differences not only in the reactions of the 
infants, but also individual differences in the reactions or expression of 
the observers. The individual differences between the infants, according 
to scientists, are due to the sensitivities of the nervous system and what 
is called temperament; ( 3 ) the individual differences in the observers 
are due to the same causes as influence the infants with the addition 
that the stock of information of each observer must be taken into account. 
It is self-evident, therefore, that the observations on infants should be 
supplemented by the many delicate and accurate instruments now at 
command and used in the various laboratories, including the camera with 
its sensitive plate, so as to hold fast the expressive movements, and the 
phonograph to record the sounds emitted beginning with the cry or 
sneeze, or whatever it happens to be. The psychologist could thus study 
the facial expression of the child (emotion), including its cries, groans 
and grunts (which is the embryo of language). Sante de Sanctis made 
observations on thefacial expression of infants and also photographed them. ( 4 ) 
In the first chapter, we emphasized the fact, that all impressions 
were received by means of the excitation of the sensory nerves which 
carried messages from the external and internal worlds to the cells which 
stored them away, and at the same time reacted by means of the motor 
nerves. Physiologists tell us that every stimulus that is applied 
must cause a reaction. There are chemical and physical changes, 
but the reaction cannot be seen in the minimal. It is important for us 
to know that the muscle gives an actual reaction, because all the photographs 
used in this book are due to some stimulus and its corresponding reaction. 
We will reproduce here most of the expressions of the sensations and 
emotions as experienced in the first seven days of an infant. We must 
not forget that we all went through such an infancy, and in representing 
the expressions of an adult instead of an infant, we have merely added 
deeper lines due to years of experience which have stamped their mark 
on the face. In order not to leave any doubt in our minds in regard 
to the revival of these infantile feelings and emotions, we will quote 
R. Angell, Alexander Bain, Th. Ribot, McCosh, etc. who say that „Emotional 
feelings are revivable according to the laws of revival of mental states. (*) 
To return to the newborn infant, W. Preyer says that „the senses are 
absolutely necessary to the child for any knowledge of the world into 
which he is born. If one sense only is lacking, knowledge of one kind 
must be forever lacking. The senses, however, do not furnish knowledge 
at once. The child has to learn to use them. Taste first learned. A 
few days after birth, sweet is preferred to bitter or sour. This early 
development of taste is of advantage to the child. Smell is manifested 


26 


in the first few days by discrimination between agreeable and disagreeable 
odors. The cutaneous sense, which includes the sense temperature alone 
with that of touch, is imperfect for some days. Hearing does not exisl 
at birth. The newborn child is deaf, and for many days he hears im¬ 
perfectly. This lack of hearing is advantageous. Sight is not possessed 
at first. The eye is sensitive to light, but there is no perception ol 
color or form.” 

„Besides the five special senses which deal with external impressions, 
there are, as we know, in the adult human being general senses also, 
through which we have feelings of the body — e.g., of pain and pleasure* 
discomfort and comfort, feelings of a general character — in a word 
general feelings. Th newborn child doubtless brings with him into the 
world, already developed, the nerves indispensable to such feelings, feelings 
that are aroused by internal stimulus . ..” 

Sense of sight 

We find, according to Preyer, that the sensibility to light (sense of 
sight) and the agreeableness toward it (pleasant feeling) appear together 
the first day; and on the twenty-third day is evidenced pleasure in sight 
of a rose-colored curtain. Photograph No. 7 gives us the representation 
of the expression of sight and pleasurable feeling. In this case, A. F., 
an adult, is looking upon natural tea roses. The pleasant sight is 
reflected in A. F.’s face, denoting a pleasant feeling. 

Sense of touch 

Both Preyer and Dearborn tell us that the newborn babe experiences 
comfort and discomfort in connection with sensibility to contact which 
belongs to the sense of touch. Preyer says: „ By the act of birth the 
central nervous system is first literally awakened. And there is nothing 
against the assumption that the first contact, pressure in the act of birth, 
causes pain. I have twice heard a child scream whose head only was 
as yet born, and the expression of countenance in this half-born condition 
was one of extreme discomfort. The compression of the body, and the 
compression of the skull that had just preceded, probably awakened the 
child out of its intr-uterine sleep. 

„That rude contact in the act of birth may cause pain, in the strict 
sense of the word, to the mature foetus, is probable, because the foetus 
may in the same circumstances experience pleasure; for when I put into 
the mouth of the screaming child, whose head alone was as yet born, 
an ivory pencil or a finger, the child began to suck, opened its eyes, and 
seemed, to judge from its countenance, to be 'most agreeably affected.” 



No. 11 


No. 10 








27 


Dearborn says of the newborn infant: 20th hour: . .. „She was readily 
quieted when gently crying by ,trotting’ or even holding a hand or rubbing 
the forehead.” tie remarks that „the fact that gentle jogging up and 
down was immediately appreciated and reacted to by the newborn thus 
indicates that the Kinesthetic sense-organs already are in action and well 
connected with the centers concerned with emotional reactions (perhaps 
the optic thalamus) situated in the brain and, because of the prompt 
inhibition demonstrated, also with the cortex of the hemispheres . . 

Photograph 8 gives us the representation of a pleasant feeling 
accompanied by the sense of touch. A. F. Is feeling the smoothness of 
the petals of the roses, while photograph 9 gives the representation of the 
expression of a slight stinging pain caused by a thorn in the stem of the rose 

Taste 

„We know, from mimetic reflex movements of the same sort as 
those of adults, that the newly-born, and even those born a month or 
two before their time, react upon substances that have a taste, when 
these are introduced into the mouth by means of a pencil. Kussmaul 
tested the sense of taste in this way in more than twenty newly-born 
children, making, use of cane-sugar, quinine, common salt, and tartaric 
acid. Genzmer repeated these experiments with twentyfive children, most 
of whom he obseived immediately after birth and from three to six days 
after, some up to the sixth week. Kussmaul found that the salt, the 
quinine, and the acid occasioned grimaces as an expression of dislike, 
but with much variation in the manifestation in individual cases. The 
sugar, on the other hand, produced movements of sucking. The liquids 
to be tested were all warmed, so that the reaction upon them can not 
be ascribed to a feeling of cold in the mouth .. . 

„It is certain, from all observations, that the newly-born distinguish 
the sensations of taste that are decidly different from one another, the 
sweet, sour, and bitter.” Photograph No. 10 represents the expression 
of pleasant or agreeable taste; photo No. 11 a bitter taste. 

Smell 

„The child can, even in its first days, be constrained, by strong¬ 
smelling substances, to mimetic movements. Kussmaul has ascertained 
that new-born children in sleep, when the odor of asafoetida or of the 
very bad smelling Dippel’s-oil enters their nostrils, frequently shut the 
eyelids tighter together, distort the face, become restless, move the head 
and the arms, awake; and go to sleep again when the cause of the smell 
is removed. Genzmer observed that well-developed, lively children, are 
brought to screaming by strong impressions of smell . .. 


28 


. . . Sensations of smell are present, for the first time, not at the ag 
of four weeks, or from the second month on, as many think, but evei 
in the first days, and the pleasant and unpleasant feelings occasione< 
by them increase in^ intensity from day to day.” Photograph 12 A. F 
Is smelling the roses; photo 13 she is inhaling their perfume and thu: 
creating a pleasant feeling; photo 14 she is enjoying the perfume, photo: 
of disgust may be seen in another chapter. 

Hearing 

„ All children immediately after birth are deaf. . . 

How many hours, days, or weeks after birth the very earliest sensations 
of sound are experienced it is not easy to determine very accurately 
for the reason that an unmistakable sign that a sensation of sound has 
been experienced is lacking. Movements of the eyelids, starting, throwing 
up the arms, and screaming, which appear in the child at the stimulus 
of sudden loud sound, appear readily at fright caused by any strong 
impression, while slight noises and soft tones remain unnoticed. The 
turning of the head toward the invisible source of sound does not take 
place till later . . . 

Most children . . . even those born three or four weeks too early, 
respond in the first days to strong impressions of sound by reflex 
movements in the region of the facialis,” according to Dr. Moldenhauer’s 
observations. 

Preyer says that in all ordinary children they do not react upon 
any noise half an hour after birth. 

„It was not until the first half of the fourth day that I was convinced 
that my child was no longer deaf. For hand-clapping or whistling, close 
to him then produced sudden opening of the halfshut eyes, as the child 
lay warm and satisfied with food, and to all appearance comfortable.” 

Dearborn says of his little subject —6 th day: 

„She seems to hear the tick of a watch held close to the ear, and 
tends to follow it with the eyes, but not invariably. She seemed to 
hear and notice a siren-whistle out on the Hudson River, for she stopped 
moving; she acted similarly from the sound of a mouth-whistle.” 

He remarks that „Mrs Moore’s boy ceased crying on the second 
day when his father whistled, and Miss Shinn reports that her subject 
,started’ when paper was torn at a distance of eight feet. This particular, 
latter, noise is always frightful to young infants, for some reason none 
too obvious and must be classed, of course, as sound heard; still it 
partakes of vibrations much more stimulating than most other proper 


Plate III 





:Nq.i6 


No. 15 















































































































































































- 





















































































Plate V 




No. 28 


No. 27 







#• 


29 


sounds . . Photograph 15 gives us the representation of the expression 
of hearing (musical sound): photo 16 (noise). 

Pain, strain, fatigue, yawning and muscular sensibility 

Thus far we have shown the photographs which represent the ex¬ 
pression of the external or exterior senses; we will now observe the 
representations of the expression and gestures of the interior senses. 

Photograph 17 is attention to a pain in or near the heart. There 
is also a little fear mingled with the expression of pain, due perhaps 
to the fear of death, which is associated with any trouble with the heart. 
Photos 18, 19, 20, show different intensities of pain. Photo 21 represents 
pain due to having crushed fingers; photo 22 pain due to injury to the 
elbow joint; photo 23 pain due to injury to the shin bone, photo 24 pain 
in back. 

It is interesting to note that the hand seems to try to aid, protect 
or support the part of the body which is in danger. Other expressions 
of pain may be seen in photographs in the other chapters. Besides the 
expression of pain, photo 25 gives us the expression of yawning, photo 26 
fatigue, photo 27 strain, and photo 28 muscular (singing). These are 
all representations of the expression of internal sensations. Howell, in 
his Physiology speaks of a fatigue sense and there is, as seen in photo 26, 
the expression of fatigue. „In continued voluntary contractions we are 
conscious of a sense of fatigue, which eventually leads us, if possible, 
to discontinue our efforts. This sensation must arise from a stimulus 
of sensory nerve fibers within the muscles or their tendons, and it may 
be regarded as an important regulation where by we are prevented from 
pushing our muscular exertion to the point of ,straining’.” 

We may say the same of the straining sense, and of the yawning 
sense, for as we see in the expression of strain (27), and in the ex¬ 
pression of yawning (25), they have their own characteristic and differ 
from the expression of fatigue. More study and research are required 
before any more can be said upon this point. However, we must note 
that even in the internal sensations, there is a characteristic feeling 
which accompanies a sensation. Something good to eat satisfies the 
sensation of hunger; in fact we may find great pleasure in eating, and 
to some individuals it is a very great pleasure. Then again, as in 
photo 28, we have the expression of joy or buoyancy due to the exercise 
of the vocal chords which implies the exercise of the muscles of the 
larynx, face, and those of respiration. This photograph seems to show 
pleasure and surprise. The latter is no doubt due to the holding of 


30 


the breath in order to prolong the tone. It is interesting to note that 
of the 100 individuals who were asked what this photo meant to them, 
98 remarked that it represented a happy frame of mind such as joy* 
pleasure etc., including surprise. Only two out of the hundred said that 
it was singing. Besides the exercise of the vocal cords, we may find 
great pleasure in dancing, playing ball or any other muscular exercise* 
such as even a brisk walk. 

We will not go into the discussion of the individual differences* 
but for our purpose we may conclude, and which facts the photographs 
also show, that with the' experience of the senses, there are the 
accompanying characteristic feelings. This is of great importance to us* 
because instead of accounting just for sensations, we see that we must 
account also for the feelings that accompany them at the same time. 

It is self evident that it is of extreme importance for us to understand 
the inherited mechanism which gives us our sensations, feelings and 
emotions. This inherited machinery which enables the child to react 
to a new environment, and which we name breathing, grasping, sneezing* 
coughing, sucking, swallowing, tickling, touching, tasting, smelling, 
pleasure, pain, anger, wonder, fear, disgust etc., are accomplished, as 
scientists tell us, by means of reflex action, the working unit of the 
Nervous System. In order to understand the action of the Nervous 
System, we must have at least a general idea of the action of the body 
as a whole. 


The human body: summary 

The Physicist informs us that everything that is presented to our 
senses is Matter, and that each particle of matter is vibrating to and 
fro. Therefore according to his point of view, the human body consists- 
of a mass of matter, which assumes various forms such as solid, liquid, 
and gaseous; and is subject to the laws which belong to matter in general* 

The Chemist informs us that the Matter found in the human body 
is composed of various elements, such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, 
phosphorous, iron, potassium, magnesium, chlorine, iodine, sodium* 
calcium, silicon, fluorine, lithium, copper, manganese, lead, and carbon. 
The physicist informs us that water is a liquid, while the chemist will 
analyze this liquid and then state that it consists of two parts of hydrogen 
and one part of oxygen, or fi 2 0. 

The Gross Anatomist describes the large structures of the body 
such as the head, neck, arms, trunk, hands, legs, and feet; and each of 



31 


these in its turn is composed of lesser parts, which he, also describes 
such as forehead, eyes, ears, nose, jaw, cheeks, mouth, shoulders, chest, 
back hip, and the like. 

The Minute Anatomist (Histologist) describes the minute structures 
or microscopical parts of the body such as the cells and other parts 
which are too small to be seen with the naked eye. 

The Physiologist appropriates the knowledge given by the above 
scientists, and states that although the body of man is a very complicated 
structure composed of innumerable individual cells, he regards man as 
a unit, as an organized community of cells, as a cell colony. Each little 
cell is a distinct unit, with a life of its own to live, and with general 
as well as special work to carry on as long as it lives. 

The Psychologist also appropriates the knowledge given by the 
various scientists; and informs us that man is not only a cell colony, 
but is also a conscious, thinking, feeling and willing individual. 

The Sociologist adds something to all that has been said thus far, 
informing us that the human individual is a social unit, known as the 
socius, a name given to an individual, who is not only an animal, and 
a conscious mind, but also a companion, a learner, a teacher, and a 
co-worker. In other words, just as the cells in the human body live 
individual lives, and have general and special work to do, so do human 
individuals or social units live individual lives, and have general and 
special work to do. 

It is self evident that we cannot enter into the discussion of these 
various sciences, which are all easily accessible, but we must be aware 
of the fact that the human body may be studied and observed in various 
aspects, and by various scientists. The reason that we have such sciences 
as that of physics, chemistry, anatomy, histology, physiology, psychology, 
sociology and the like, is, that division of labor in science is as necessary 
as it is in the industrial field, the educational field, and the like. 

We will now give a few more facts in order to understand the 
workings of the body as a whole or in any of its parts; and then pass 
on to our summary of the Nervous System, which will not only give 
us a general idea of reflex action, but will also unfold to us the organs 
of sensation and feeling or emotion. 

The starting point in the formation of a living body is The Primitive 
Cell. The material of which any part of the body is composed, and is 
itself formed from the primitive cell, is called a Tissue, such as the 
muscular, the nervous, the connective, the glandular, and the like. Any 
part of the body composed of one or more tissues, or a collection of 
cells which are all working together to do some important work for 


32 


the body is called an ORGAN. For example, the lungs are the organs 
of breathing; the eyes are the organs of sight; the ears are the organs 
of hearing; the muscles are the organs of motion, and the like. The 
various organs of the body combine to form System of Organs such as 
the Nervous System, The Circulatory System, The Respiratory System, 
the Digestive System, The Muscular System, and the like. 

As mentioned before, modern science regards man as a unit, as an 
organized community of cells, as a cell colony. Each little cell has its 
own life to live, and with general as well as special work to carry on 
as long as it lives. 

The General Work of the Cells is that of absorption, assimilation, 
and excretion. All ceils must have food to eat and air to breathe; and 
this process of taking water, food and oxygen into the cells is known 
as Absorption. The process which results in the addition of the absorbed 
material to the cells is known as Assimilation. The process by which 
waste and impurities are removed, as the result of oxidation, and other 
changes in the cells, is known as Excretion. 

The Special Work of Cells:— In addition to the general work which 
all cells do in common, each group of cells in the body is able to do 
some special work. In other words they have become used to one kind 
of work and thus have specialized. The muscle cells produce motion; 
the sensory cells send messages or warnings of the external and internal 
environments; the motor cells send impulses to the muscles or glands; 
the gland cells manufacture secretion or chemical messengers, known 
as hormones or chalones; the nerve-cells in the brain take charge of 
the mental life of the individual; and control the action of other parts 
of the body, and so on. 


The system of organs and their functions 

FRAMEWORK ORGANS (The Osseous System) preserve the shape 
of the body; afford protection to delicate parts of the body; and furnish 
places of attachment for the muscles, thus becoming the levers of 
motion. 

ORGANS OF MOTION (The Muscular System) are the muscles and 
form the most of the bulk of the limbs and a great part of the walls 
of the cavities of the trunk. „Through their instrumentality man is 
enabled to seize and retain his food, to defend himself from and assail 
his enemies, to move about from place to place, and to do numberless 
other acts in which motion is the principal factor.” 

ORGANS SUPPLYING NOURISHMENT (The Respiratory System, 
The Digestive System, The Circulatory System, The Lymphatic System) 






33 


are the respiratory organs which admit nutrient material to the blood; 
the long alimentary canal with its attendant organs, known as the digestive 
system; a complicated series of tubes, the blood-vessels connected with 
the heart, known as the circulatory system; and another set of tubes 
known as the lymph vessels, which serve as communicating channels 
between the various cells of the body and the nourishing blood. 

ORGANS REMOVING WASTE MATTER (Excretory System) are the 
lungs, skin, kidneys and intestines. It is the lymph and the blood which 
carries the impurities from the various cells of the body to the above 
mentioned outlets. 

ORGANS OF INTERNAL SECRETION are the ductless glands: they are 
the thyroid body, adrenal or suprarenal capsules, the thymus, the hypophysis 
the parathyroids; and the liver, the pancreas and the kidney which are 
both external and internal secretory organs. „It is supposed that they 
furnish substances which produce a profound impression upon nutrition, 
and that these matters, as soon as formed, are thrown into the blood, 
whence the material for their formation was originally derived. 

ORGANS OF RELATION (The Nervous System) regulate and harmonize 
the operations of all of the other parts of the body, and bring the in¬ 
dividual into conscious relation with the world around him through the 
medium of sense organs. 

The nervous system: summary. 

In order to understand the action of the Nervous System, we must 
learn to know (1) the divisions^ the nervous system; (2) nerve-cells 
or neurones, which are the structural units of the nervous system; (3) reflex 
actions, which are the working or functional units of the nervous system. 

The divisions of the nervous system.—The nervous system, though 
really constituting a single system is generally described by physiologists 
as consisting of two separate systems: (1) The cerebro-spinal system 
and (2) the sympathetic system. The nerves of the latter system are 
connected with each other, and with the sensory root of the spinal nerves 
by a network of grey nerve-tissue. The nerves of this system pass off 
in various ways to internal organs of the body: the stomach, heart, blood¬ 
vessels, etc., control involuntary movements and regulate the supply of 
the blood. 

The cerebro-spinal system consists of:— 

(a) The Central Organs:— (1) the brain and (2) spinal cord. 

(b) The End Organs of Sense situated in the sense organs; and the 
End Organs of Motion situated in the muscles and glands. 

Feelings and Emotions. 4 



34 


(c) The conducting nerves joining the end organs with the central 
organs in two ways:— 

(1) As afferent or sensory nerves carrying messages or impulses 
to the central organ (brain and spinal cord) from the sense 
organ. 

(2) As efferent or motor nerves carrying messages or impulses 
from the central organ to the end organs of motion. 

The following diagram shows this arrangement graphically. It may 
also serve to show the mechanism of a reflex action, the working unit 


of the nervous system. 

Fig. 3. 



Sensitive end organs, 
called sense organs 
or receptors: — touch, 
pressure, cold, heat, 
pain, taste, smell, 

( 

Central Organs 
Brain & Spinal Cord 


Motor end organs. 

hearing, vision, mus¬ 
cular sensibility, ten¬ 
don , joint, static, 
equilibratory, hunger, 
thirst, nausea, respir¬ 
atory, circulatory, 

sex, obscure, abdo¬ 
minal sensitivity, and 
distention of cavities, 
stomach, rectum, 

bladder etc. 


End Organs 


called effectors are 
on the Striated or 
skeletal muscles; on 
the involuntary Vis¬ 
ceral muscles; and on 
glands. 

Sense-organ 

* 

Muscle or Gland 


THE BRAIN.—The brain, the great nerve-centre of the body, is the 
large, upper portion of the cerebro-spinal system, fills the cavity of the 
skull; gives off 12 pairs of nerves, called cranial nerves, which run from 
the brain to the various parts of the face, head and body. It consists 
of several parts, the^chief of which are the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and 
the medulla oblongata. 

The CEREBRUM occupies the upper and frontal portion of the cavity 
of the skull; and is the seat of sensation, perception, thought, reasoning, 
willing, feeling and emotion. 

The CEREBELLUM is situated in the lower or back part of the skull, 
underneath the back portion of the cerebrum. Its chief work seems to 
be the regulation or coordination of muscular movement. 

The MEDULLA OBLONGATA is situated within the skull and is con¬ 
tinuous with the brain. It is the enlargement or bulb of the upper ex- 





35 


tremity of the spinal cord and may be regarded as a prolongation^ it. 
The nerve centres which it contains govern the involuntary movements 
which constitute the acts of breathing, swallowing, circulation of the blood, 
etc. It conducts the nerves between the spinal cord and the cerebrum 
and cerebellum; and is a centre of REFLEX ACTION. 

The SPINAL CORD is a cylinder of soft nerve tissue which extends 
from the base of the skull to the region of the loins, where it tapers. 
It is contained in the long cavity of the back-bone, and gives off thirty- 
one pairs of spinal nerves which must be distinguished from the twelve 
cranial nerves given off from the brain. The spinal cord conducts nerve 
impulses from the cord to the brain and from the brain to the cord; and 
is the centre REFLEX ACTION. 

The END ORGANS OF SENSE are specialized cells which are sen¬ 
sitive to a particular kind of stimulus. The eye for example, is only 
sensitive or excited to ether vibrations that are known as light waves, 
and give us the sensation of sight. The ear is only sensitive to air 
vibrations that are known as sound waves, and gives us the sensation 
of hearing. The taste buds on the tongue react to various solutions and 
give us the sensation of taste. The sensitive nerves in the nose react 
to different gases or microscopical particles of matter that are inhaled 
through the nose, and give us the sensation of smell. The sensory end- 
organs of the skin give us light pressure (touch), pressure, pain, warm 
and cold. The essential portion of each end organ of sense is composed 
of nerve tissue, the other parts are appendages which aid in the reception 
of impressions. It is well to bear in mind that the sensory end organs 
collect impressions; but the process of sensation takes place in the brain. 
It is also well to bear in mind that besides the above mentioned sen¬ 
sibilities, we also experience or possess organic sensations such as the 
kinaesthetic (muscle, joint, tendon); respiratory, circulatory, equilibratory, 
hunger, thirst, nausea, and the like. 

The END ORGANS OF MOTION.—All physiologists claim that the 
MUSCLES are the organs of MOTION. If this is true, then they must 
also be the organs of the emotions. Muscles are of two kinds: the voluntary 
muscles which can be made to act under the influence of the will and 
make up the greater part of the muscles which cover the bony skeleton 
and the involuntary muscles which carry on their work without the choice 
or will of the individual, as muscles which keep up the circulation, 
respiration digestion, etc. It is self evident that the muscles must be the 
organs of the emotions; because the names given to those organs which move 
the body from place to place, and cause the various movements in the 
body, are names of MUSCLES; and there are over 500 of them in the body. 

4* 


36 


The Glands are also motor end organs, as motor or efferent nerves 
are not only connected with muscular fibre, but with the secretory glands. 
But the function or work of these glands is to throw their secretions 
into the blood; and as mentioned before, their substances are supposed 
to produce nutritive effects; while the function or work of the muscles 
is motion or movement. For this reason, it seems best to say that the 
MUSCLES are the organs of MOTION, EMOTION; and the glands are the 
organs of SECRETION or EXCRETION as the case may be. 

THE NEURONE, the structural unit of the nervous system, is a 
highly specialized nerve-cell and two kinds of prolongations or processes: 
(1) dendrites which usually conduct impulses toward the cell body, and 
a single long process, axone, which carries the impulse outward from 
the cell body. The complete unit is called a neurone. There are three 
classes of these: (1) Sensory or afferent neurones are those that receive 
impulses from a sense organ; (2) motor or efferent neurones are those 
that carry a stimulation out to the muscles; (3) and association neurones 
which serve to connect the sensory and motor neurones. 

REFLEX ACTION, the working or the functional unit of the nervous 
system.—When a stimulus acts on a sense-organ and arouses the activity 
of a muscle or gland by means of a sensory nerve, a nervous centre, and 
a motor nerve, the< entire act is said to be reflex. Thus a cell never 
acts alone, but is always a link in a reflex arc. 

According to Sherrington, „a simple reflex is probably a purely ab¬ 
stract conception, because all parts of the nervous system are connected 
together and no part of it is probably ever capable of reaction without 
affecting and being affected by various other parts, and it is a system 
certainly never absolutely at rest But the simple reflex is a convenient, 
if not a probable fiction. Reflexes are of various degrees of complexity, 
and it is helpful in analyzing complex reflexes to separate from them 
reflex components which we may consider apart and therefore treat as 
though they were simple reflexes.” 

REFLEX ACTION OF THE SPINAL CORD may be very simple or 
somewhat complicated. In the simple reflex the cause of the stimulus 
is as indicated above. Among these spinal reflexes are the petellar 
reflex, the reflex withdrawal of a part when irritated, and the skin 
reflexes. In a more complicated spinal reflex the impulses traverse at 
least three neurones. The more complicated reflexes are the vasomotor 
reflexes, the cardio-accelerator reflexes, etc. (Gray.) 

REFLEX ACTIONS OF THE BRAIN are as completely reflex as those 
of the spinal cord. When the eyelids wink at a flash of light or a 
threatened blow, a reflex action takes place, in which the afferent nerves 


37 


are the optic, the efferent the facial. When a bad smell causes a 
grimace, there is a reflex action through the same motor nerve, while 
the olfactory nerves constitute the afferent channels. In these cases, 
therefore, reflex action must be effected through the brain, all the nerves 
involved being cerebral. (Huxley.) 

CRANIAL SPINAL REFLEXES are produced by impulses from cranial 
sensory nerves being transferred to spinal motor nerves. An example 
of one of these reflexes is the starting on hearing a sudden loud sound. 
(See Photograph 5). Among these numerous reflexes are the respiratory, 
auditory and pupillary. (Gray.) 

SPINAL CRANIAL REFLEXES are due to the ascent of impulses in 
the cord which reach the nuclei of cranial motor nerves. Thus is brought 
about the movement of the eyes toward the source of impulse, a change 
of facial expression to agree with the painful, fearful, disgusting, 
wondering, pleasing etc. character of the impulses. 

Steps in the production of sensation and feeling 

We are told that the steps in the production of sensations are not 
essentially different from those in the production of reflex action; and 
that feelings or emotions are hereditary responses or reflex or involun¬ 
tary movements of the individual. 

In regard to SENSATION we have, first of all, external or internal 
stimuli or excitations acting upon the sensitive organs which send 
sensory or afferent impulses into the central nervous system and there 
excite neurons or nerve-cells which in turn discharge impulses into the 
cerebrum. The result is to arouse a cerebral excitation known as 
sensation. 

„But this same afferent or sensory impulse in its passage through 
the spinal cord and brain stem may, before reaching the cerebrum, 
discharge collateral impulses into lower centers of reflex coordination, 
from which motor responses are discharged previous to the cerebral 
reaction. These motor discharges may, through the „back stroke” action 
in turn exert an influence upon the slower cerebral reaction. Thus the 
lower reflex response may in a literal physiological sense act into the 
cortical stimulus complex and become an integral part of it.” (Herrick.) 

From the above facts, we may conclude, that if the impulses from 
the sensory end of the reflex arc are identified as sensations when they 
excite the cerebral cells, then the impulses from the motor end of the 
reflex arc are identified as motion, feeling or emotion as the case may 
be when they stimulate the cerebral cells. Some scientists claim the 


38 


thalamus as the reflex centre of feelings and emotions. But we must 
bear in mind that the seat of sensation, feeling, emotion; and the 
memories of these states are located in the cerebrum. 

SENSATIONS may be classified into two groups: (1) The sensations 
of special sense, which are stimulated from without, and include the 
sensations of sight, hearing, taste, smell, pressure, pain and temperature 
(cold and warm); and (2) the organic sensations which are stimulated 
from within, and include the muscular sensations, hunger, thirst, nausea, 
fatigue, strain, sex, etc. 

PRIMARY FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS. The majority of scientists 
state that sensations are accompanied by feelings of pleasure or pain 
(displeasure). We, however, claim that sensations are accompanied by 
at least six primary feelings known as pain, pleasure, anger, fear, disgust 
and wonder. A newborn infant does not merely experience pleasure or 
pain, but he may experience fear, rage, disgust and wonder. By means 
of the senses of sight, hearing and touch, he may not only experience 
pleasure or pain; but may start with fear or wonder at excitation of 
light or noise as also at sudden contact. By means of the senses of 
taste and smell, he not only experiences pleasure or pain, but may 
instinctively experience disgust. By means of the respiratory and muscular 
sense organs, the infant’s movements may be hampered, and characteristic 
attitudes known as rage or anger may be induced. 

As a result of these obsevations. in young infants and in animals, 
we have come to the conclusion that sensations are accompanied by 
at least six primary feelings or emotions: pleasure, pain, anger, fear, 
disgust and wonder. We wish to draw attention to the fact that fear 
is not a form of displeasure, nor is it accompanied by a painful feeling. 
As the word „fear” is the generic term for feelings or emotions such 
as fright, terror, horror and the like, we may say that „fear” is not 
an unpleasant experience, but it is a fearful, frightful, terrifying and 
horrifying feeling or experience. 

We may say the same of ANGER. An emotion of anger is nothing 
else than an angry feeling or emotion. It is not to be considered an 
unpleasant feeling nor an angry feeling accompanied by pain. It is in 
fact, nothing else than an emotion of anger or an angry feeling. If it 
is combined with pain, we have a mixed emotion. As the characteristic 
pattern of anger which is ingrained in the neuromuscular mechanism 
differs from the characteristic patterns of fear, pleasure, disgust, wonder 
and the like, we seem justified in concluding that each primary emotion 
is just what it appears to be. That is to say, each primary emotion 
is the reflex effect which an individual experiences when confronted by 


39 


an emotion producing object or fact. The reflex centres for pain and 
anger must be situated in the Medulla, as these reactions were observed 
by Goltz and Sherrington in their decerebrated dogs. Head and Holmes 
have brought forward evidence that the emotional life is closely connected 
with the Thalamus. They also claim that both the thalamus and the 
cerebrum are concerned in conscious activity. 

The expressions of the feelings or emotions as seen in the muscles 
of the face and in the bodily attitude, we consider the organs of the 
emotions. We must bear in mind that physiologically, the human body 
is a cell colony, that these cells work in groups, and that there is a 
division of labor among the cells. Thus although we consider the 
MUSCLE the organs of MOTION and EMOTION, they cannot act without 
the impulses from the nerve-cells nor without the nourishment and the 
stimulus of the blood. As mentioned before each group of cells works 
for the benefit of the whole body, and not only for itself. Thus if the 
muscle cells work for the benefit of the rest of the cells of the body, 
then if the entire body fears or experiences joy, every cell in the body 
fears and is joyous. In the physicist’s language, the feelings or emotions 
are nothing else than rhythmical reactions of the body to its external 
or internal environments. These rhythmical reactions may be observed 
in respiratory or heart records or heard in oral speech; and may be 
seen in the expression of the face and attitude of the .whole body. 

We all experience the feelings or emotions, because we are born 
with inherited reflexes ingrained in the nervous system which allow us 
not only to sense things which reflect facts or objects of our external 
or internal environments, but to also sense our own reactions to these 
objects. A fear producing object or person induces fear, and pleasure 
producing object or person induces pleasure and so on. Of course there 
are individual differences as some individuals do not react as easily as 
others. Then again some individuals lack certain emotions. This is 
comparable to individuals lacking certain of their sense organs, It is 
just as important to fear a fear-producing object as it is for him to 
see it. And just as we see or hear in spite of ourselves, so we fear in 
spite of ourselves due to inherited tendencies which we have discussed. 

When all the cells in the body are normal and rested, working 
harmoniously with their external and internal environments, the body 
may be said to be in a natural or pleasurable state. That is to say, 
healthy or normal organs and harmonious actions of the cells spell 
pleasure. Diseased organs, abnormal desires (abnormal stimulation of 
certain cells), abnormal, diseased, or cancerous society or environment 
give rise to pain, anger, fear, disgust and the like. 


Chapter 3 

Thoughts and feelings-emotions 

In our previous discussions, we have become familiar with the facts 
that sensations are accompanied by characteristic feelings or emotions: 
pleasure, pain, anger, fear, wonder and disgust. We will now investigate 
feelings or emotions which accompany ideas or thoughts as seen in 
Plates VI and VII. 

1 

Common sense point of view 

Let us observe Plates VI and VII in what we consider the ordinary 
or common sense point of view. They both seem to have a story to 
tell. The individual in Plate VI is worried and thinking hard. She seems 
to be searching anxiously for something within the mind. In photograph 31, 
she is looking for it in the note-book. She does not seem to find the 
thing that she is looking for, as in photograph 32 she shows an expression 
of great annoyance. In 33, she is so tired of thinking that she is compelled 
to support her head with her hand. In 34, she seems to have lost hope. 
Finally, in 35 and 36, she is determined to find what she was looking for. 

The story as seen in Plate VII seems to say „I have put things in 
order and I feel the better for it. Now I am ready to pursue my work.” 
In photograph 37, the clenched hand still shows a little determination. 
It has not taken very long for the individual to find the missing sentence, 
term or word. The connecting link seems to have given great pleasure, 
which is increasing as the new idea dawns upon the horizon. At last, 
the new combination is written down and there seems to be satisfaction 
that the work will soon be accomplished. Finally, it seems to be completed 
as relaxation ensues. 

2 

Psychological point of view 

Now let us observe these plates from a psychological point of view. 
We should be very much interested in the expression of consciousness 
or mental states, and what is going on within the mind. The expression 
of thoughts and feelings is self-evident, as is shown in the behavior of 


































No. 44 No. 43 No. 42 No. 41 















































41 


the body and especially in the expression of the face. Now we would 
ask ourselves: what were the stimuli which caused the reactions? We 
may answer, since these photographs were posed for a psychological 
experiment, the plan was first written down as follows: 


Disorder reigns 


Setting: Books and papers arranged in a kind of jumble. Individual 
sitting at a table thinking where she had written down or 
seen a statement made by some eminent writer. 

Photograph Num. 29 Where is it? (Thinking) 

9 „ 30 Searching in the mind. (Thinking) 

» * 31 Searching through the notes. (Sense-perception) 

» „ 32 0 pshaw! (Feeling of annoyance with self) 

„ „ 33 Perplexed. 

„ „ 34 Don’t know what to do. 

„ „ 35 I must find it. (Willing) 

„ „ 36 I will find it, even if I die in the attempt. (Will) 


Photograph 

n 


» 


Num. 37 
. 38 

» 39 

» 40 

, 41 

» 42 

„ 43 

* 44 


Order reigns 

Now at least I have the papers in order. 
I found it! (looking up with joy) 

It’s all right. 

It’s great. 

It’s wonderful. 

I’ll write it down. 

I’m almost through with it. 

Well, that’s done. 


Then A. F. posed for the above situations according to the plan. 
The poses were not studied but the images of the situations were in her 
mind, and the words were silently expressed, thus allowing the Nervous 
System to take its habitual course. The result of which we see in 
Plates VI and VII. It seems that the words which are learned in infancy 
and by constant repetition are so imbedded in the Nervous System that 
they become closely associated with the ideas or memories of sensory 
complexes which the words represent; and the feelings or emotions which 
have accompanied the sensory experiences. Thus we may have the recital 
of the WORDS which represent the ideas, or the ideas themselves revive 
the feelings or emotions; or the expression of the feelings or emotions 
may call up various ideas, or stimulate the vocal organs. 

We must note that, if A. F. merely spoke the words silently without 
having the impression of the whole situation in her mind, she would 


42 


react in a different manner, i. e. there would be visible only a very slight 
expression of feeling due to organic action. Photograph No. 45 is the 
expression of organic action: A. F. is enunciating the alphabet from 
a — z, during which time the camera snapped the expression. Compare 
photograph No. 46, which represents absence of thought, and photograph 
No. 34 which, although it has the expression of a blank look, still 
has enough expression in it to denote that there are a few thoughts 
left. This all seems to show that the facial muscles are agitated by 
every little shock which the nervous system receives. In potograph^ 
Nos. 29, 30,38, 39, 40 and 41 is shown the representation of characteristic 
feelings accompanying attention to thought or ideas as experienced by 
a thinking and feeling individual. In Nos. 31 and 42, we find feelings 
accompanying sense-perceptions; in No. 44, a pleasurable feeling accom¬ 
panying muscular sensation (relaxation). 

So far we have spoken of Thoughts and Feelings, but now we must 
introduce another aspect of consciousness known as Willing, since 
photograph 35 is the representation of the expression of the action of 
the Will: „I must find it”; and photograph 36 is the representation of 
the expression due to reciting silently „I will find it, even if I die in 
the attempt.” 

What is important for us here is to know that there is some kind 
of feeling which accompanies thinking and willing whether we are aware 
of the fact or not. This is also the opinion of the mass of psychologists. 
William dames uses the term „feeling” as a synonym for consciousness. 
John Dewey informs us that „feeling, knowledge, and will are not to 
be regarded as three kinds of consciousness; nor are they three separable 
parts of the same consciousness. They are the three aspects which every 
consciousness presents, according to the light in which it is considered 
Edw. L. Thorndike, in his „Elements of Psychology”, distinguishes five 
kinds of mental experiences, to all of which he applies the word feeling. 
They are (1) Feelings and things and qualities as present (sensations 
and perceptions), (2) Feelings of things as absent (images and memories); 
(3) Feelings of facts (relationships, meanings, judgments); (4) Feelings 
of personal condition (emotions); and (5) Feelings of willing. 

Robert M. Yerkes says „that the first three of Professor Thorndike’s 
classes of feelings are subdivisions of what we have considered above 
as knowing”; that the fourth class is co-extensive with „feeling” — and 
that the fifth class includes „willing”. It is useful to subdivide our 
„knowing” (intellectual, or cognitive) experiences thus, for it aids us in 
discovering the several varieties of knowledge. Even the novice in 
psychology should soon discover that his consciousness of things as 




Plate VIII 







* 
























































. 




























































































































































































































































U* 


' 













































■ 
















































' 




























































■ 
























43 


present is quite different from his consciousness of the same things as 
absent. And similarly, he should distinguish his consciousness of things 
and events from his consciousness of facts. It is excellent practice to 
attempt to classify one’s experiences either as „ knowing” Reeling,” and 
„ willing,” or according to Professor’s Thorndike’s method. 

„There is one serious objection to the ways of grouping experiences 
which we have been examining. They are likely to make us think of 
consciousness now as purely intellectual, now as purely affective (the 
feeling sort), and again as purely volitional. This is not the case, for 
we know and feel and will in the same moment of consciousness, and 
our ability to describe a given experience as cognitive, affective, or 
volitional is due merely to the fact that some one of these three aspects 
of consciousness is more prominent than the others.” 

The various expressions of „thinking”, ,Reeling”, and „wiliing,” as 
seen in the various photographs may readily confirm the above state¬ 
ments. For example, in photographs 35 and 36, the individual is not 
only experiencing the willing sort of consciousness, but also the thinking 
and feeling sort. The willing is in preponderance. The „thinking” sort 
of consciousness as seen in photograph 30 includes feeling and voluntary 
attention. The ^emotional” or „feeling” sort of consciousness may be 
seen in photographs 39, 40 and 41. It also includes ideas or thoughts 
and voluntary attention. Thus when we speak of the feeling or emotional 
sort, we generally have the willing or thinking sort in the background 
while the feeling sort holds the centre of the stage, so to speak. If 
there is more of the feeling sort, we call it the emotional state; if there 
is more of the knowing or thinking sort, we call it the intellectual 
state; and if there is more of the willing sort, we call it the willing 
state. That is to say, thinking, feeling and willing are closely interwoven. 

We will now define the three aspects of consciousness in a very 
rough and general way, as our purpose is merely to draw attention to 
a few facts which occupy a psychologist’s mind. Detailed knowledge 
may be found in the various books on psychology. 

Thinking 

Mental development is a gradual growth which begins with sensation 
an ends in abstract thinking. 

1. Sensation. — The impressions which are made upon us by the 
things outside of the body, or by changes within the body are called 
sensations. They are simple facts of consciousness, and resist further 
analysis. 

2. Perception. — In perception, the object is not only present to the 


44 


senses, thereby stimulating the sense-organs, but it must also mean 
something to us. In other words, sensation plus meaning is perception. 

3. Imagination. — The image or imagination is the consciousness of 
objects not present to the senses. That is to say, images are not 
dependent on the stimulation of a sense-organ, but are centrally aroused. 
It is impossible to get an image unless we had a sensation. The sensation 
must come first, then the representation of a sensation may follow. 

There are two kinds of imagination: (1) The reproductive imagination 
which is „the process of reviving percepts in the time and place order 
of their occurrence; and (2) constructive or creative imagination which 
is „the process by which we recall past percepts and form them into 
totally new combinations, the like of which have never come within our 
experience.” 

4. Image and Idea. — According to Prof. Titchener, „to image” a thing 
means, in psychology, to ideate it in kind: a tree is imaged by a visual 
idea, a piano note by an idea of hearing, running to catch a train by 
a tactual idea: the ideas are the same in kind as the perceptions which 
they represent ...” According to Miinsterberg, „if the word idea is used 
in its widest sense, the perceptions too, are perceptive ideas, as against 
the memory ideas or the abstract ideas and so on. In a narrower sense 
the term excludes the consciousness of the object directly given to our 
senses and includes only those which are not immediately perceived, 
but are remembered, expected, fancied or conceived. A frequent usage 
in modern psychology is to substitute image for idea, and to call all 
ideational acts which are not based on sense perception acts of imagination.” 

5. Imagination and Memory. — For the sake of clearness, we will 
repeat several facts already emphasized. Impressions received from the 
external world by means of a sensitive, plastic nervous system, give us 
information of objects, things or persons about us. When identified in 
consciousness, they are known as sensations of the special sense-organs, 
and include the sensations of sight, hearing, touch, pressure, pain, taste, 
smell, cold and warmth. The organic sensations are stimulated from 
within, and give us information of conditions of our own body. These 
include muscular sensations, hunger, thirst, nausea, fatigue, strain, sex, etc. 
Sensation to be of any value to us at all, must be interpreted. This 
interpretation is known as meaning. This sensation plus meaning is 
known as perception. In every perception we have memories of past 
experiences. This process of combining the new and the old is often 
called apperception. What we perceive depends upon our past experiences. 

All sensations and perceptions leave traces or paths in our nervous 
system, which, when centrally aroused, give us our various images or 


45 


ideas. Images or imagination is the consciousness of objects which are 
not present to the senses. They may be considered a kind of memory. 

In a complete Memory, we must not only impress the nervous system 
and retain the impression, but we must recall it and recognize it as a 
past experience. 

6. Association of Ideas. — Our memory-images come back to us in 
the order that they were given. The age we live in, the circumstances 
in which we have our being determine the order of our perceptions, which 
in turn determine the order of our images, ideas or thoughts. That our 
experiences come to us in the order that they were given, is known as 
association by contiguity, which means that an idea is often called up 
by another which was experienced together; and association by similarity, 
which means that an idea is likely to be called up by another which 
has some similarity to it. 

7. Purposive thinking. — „We distinguish spontaneous or aimless 
thinging from controlled or purposive thinking. In the former ideas flow 
on at random, unchecked by any interference on the part of our general 
intentions and aiming at no desired goal. The prattle of babies, the 
reveries and haphazard trains of thought which come as we sit idly 
thinking of nothing in particular, and the majority of dreams are of this 
sort. In the latter some end is in view; our thoughts are kept so far 
as may be under control and make an intelligible sequence". 

8. Judgment and Reasoning. — A jugdment may be briefly defined as 
the mental process in which a concept is consciously related to another con¬ 
cept or to a particular experience. A judgment is usually expressed in 
a sentence. Reasoning is a more complicated process of thinking which 
involves passing from one judgment to another, and finally reaching a 
conclusion. 

9. Meaning and Concept.—„From the beginning to the end of our 
mental activities, the presence of meaning is absolutely indispensable, 
and that the most fundamental property of intelligence is the ability to 
recognize and employ meanings. Perception could never lead to the 
establishment of efficient coordinations were we not able to apprehend 
the meaning of that which we see and hear and touch. Memory would 
be an abortive resuscitation of the past could we not recognize the meaning 
of that which we recall. Imagination in all its forms would be a mere 
mental logomachy were it not for our ability to understand the meaning 
of the images which occupy our minds.” 

10. Words and Concepts.—All words are concepts for „when we com¬ 
municate with others we give our ideas outward expression in spoken 
words, which serve as concepts to the hearer. It is well to bear in mind 


46 


that „ words” are merely air vibrations, and are symbols, signs, or tags, 
representing our images or ideas. 

We may define conception as that „ mental operaSon by means of 
which we bring together the common points of various experiences and 
mentally consolidate them into ideas; ideas which we are then able to 
use as symbols, or representations, of these manifold items. We apply 
the term ^concept” to this idea, the term conception” to the mental 
operation in which the idea is produced.” 

We must constantly bear in mind that our impressions which come 
to us from a complex world, are complex experiences, and are fused and 
unified in consciousness. We cannot isolate perception from imagery, 
nor imagery from memory, nor memory from thoughts or thinking, nor 
thoughts or thinking from association of ideas, nor association of ideas 
from formation of habits. 

Feeling or emotion 

Feeling.—At the present stage of our scientific knowledge, we cannot 
define the feelings, but merely identify them, and name them. This we 
attempt to do in the following chapters. We also hope to show by our 
experiments that the distinction between feeling and emotion is purely 
arbitrary. We claim with many psychologists that feeling is a simpler 
emotion, and that an emotion may degenerate into a feeling. But we 
do not agree with the mass of psychologists that feelings fall into two 
main classes, namely pleasure and pain; nor do we agree with those 
who add with Royce restlessness and quiescence; nor with the followers 
of Wundt’s tri-dimensional series, which include pleasantness and un¬ 
pleasantness, strain and relaxation, excitation and quiescence. We have 
given our own point of view in the previous chapter, and m$y repeat 
the statement that sensations are accompanied by at least six primary 
feelings or emotions known as pain, pleasure, anger, fear, disgust and 
wonder. 

Feeling and Affection.—The feeling states are sometimes discussed 
as the affective states. Thus one psychologist writes „not only do we 
experience sensations and images as such, but we are also affected 
pleasantly or unpleasantly by them.” 

Emotions. Intensified and complex feelings are known as ,emotions’, 
as for example, pleasure, pain, anger, fear, wonder, disgust, hatred, jealousy 
and the like. 

Psychologists unanimously state that the term „emotion” cannot be 
defined. Every normal individual experiences that mental and bodily 


47 


state, and therefore knows just what it is. Any one who has not ex¬ 
perienced a given emotion cannot understand it if volumes were written 
on the subject — Individuals may lack feelings as they may lack the 
power of sensing as mentioned in the previous chapter. 

The reason that „emotions” cannot be defined is that they are forces, 
and scientists do not know as yet what force is, only the manifestation 
of force such as gravity, electricity, muscular, mental and emotional. All 
that we can do is to follow the example of the various scientists and 
illustrate some of the various manifestations of the emotions as shown 
in the following chapters. This is possible because the expression of 
the feelings and emotions are objectivised feelings’ and ,emotions’; and 
as mentioned before, we consider „the expression of the feelings and 
emotions (coordinated muscular action, the pattern of which is ingrained 
in the neuromuscular mechanism) as the organs of the emotions. 

In a strict sense the emotions can never be isolated, because they 
are inextricably interwoven with the intellect and the will, on the one 
hand, and the bodily movements, on the other. It is easier to show 
what feelings and emotions are by concrete illustations than by any 
abstract statements. 

We of course are adherents of the famous James-Lange theory of 
the emotions, because as emphasized in the previous chapters, they are 
nothing else than organic sensations; and according to their theory, the 
emotions are the reflex effects of emotion producing objects, and the 
consciousness of these bodily experiences are the emotions. 

Individuals who are interested in this subject should consult the 
various chapters on Feelings, Emotions, and Instincts in the works of 
William James, Dewey, Edw. L. Thorndike, Woodworth, Titchener, Pillsbury, 
Angell, John B. Watson, Dearborn, Ziehen, Stout, Judd, Warren, Yerkes, 
Parmalee, Ribot, Wm. McDougall, Cannon, Crile, Stratton, Bell, and others; 
and various articles which may be found by consulting the Psychological 
Index; as well as Darwin’s Expression of the Emotions, Warner’s Physical 
Expression, and the works of LeBrun, Piderit, Duchenne, Mantegazza, 
Fere, Carpenter, Maudsley, Bain, Spencer, etc. 

Mood, passion, and temperament. — A pleasant or cheerful mood 
may become, if intensified, various degrees of pleasure; or again, great 
joy may give way to a happy or cheerful mood which may last hours 
or days. A depressed mood, when intensified, gives us the emotion of 
sorrow. Thus mood may represent the first degree of any emotion, and 
may last for hours or days; while emotions last comparatively a very 
short time, a few seconds or minutes. Extreme emotions such as rage 
or fury are known as passions, and exhaust the organism in a very 


48 


short time. „The name passion is also given to any abiding interest; 
to any mode of strong emotive response that is specific and lasting. 
We may say that a man has a passion for art (music, dancing, painting, 
etc.), for science, gambling; and we mean that a situation which shows 
any sort of reference to these things will appeal to him, dominatingly 
and one-sidedly, through that reference.” 

In regard to the psychological temperaments, we may say, that just 
as we say that an individual is visual-minded, or auditory minded etc., 
so we may apply the four familiar types of temperament, choleric, 
sanguine, melancholic and phlegmatic, to any individual. 

Sentiments. — These are complex emotions which like moods tend 
to last. „A sentiment has been defined as an emotion which attaches 
itself to a particular object. Affection for our friends, the home sentiment, 
and every sentiment that we can use the term ,love’, as love of knowledge, 
art, goodness, love of comfort; and all our interests, as interest in our 
health, fortune and profession, interest in books, collections, self-interest,” 
are organisations of our sentiments. 

Volition or willing 

Just as the psychology of affection or feeling, mood, emotion, 
passion and sentiment is often termed the psychology of feeling; and 
that of sensation, perception, idea, association and thought, the psychology 
of intellect or thinking, so the psychology of action and attention is 
often termed the psychology of the will. 

„The term will includes all active operations of the mind. By 
active operations are meant not only external actions or movements, 
but also internal acts of mental concentration, together with certain 
preliminary stages of action as desiring a thing, reflecting or deliberating 
about an action and resolving to do a thing.” 

„Voluntary movements must be secondary, not primary functions 
of our organism. This is the first point to understand in the psychology 
of Volition. Reflex, instinctive, and emotional movements are all primary 
performances. The nerve-centres are so organized that certain stimuli 
pull the trigger of certain explosive parts; and a creature going through 
one of these explosions for the first time undergoes an entirely novel 
experience ... As we must wait for the sensations to be given us, 
so we must wait for the movements to be performed involuntarily, 
before we can frame ideas of what either of these things are. We learn 
all our possibilities by the way of experience. When a particular move¬ 
ment, having once occurred in a random, reflex, or involuntary way, 
has left an image of itself in the memory, then the movement can be 


49 


desired again, and deliberately willed. But it is impossible to see how 
it could be willed before. 

„A supply of ideas of the various movements that are possible, 
left in the memory by experiences of their involuntary performance, 
is thus the first prerequisite of the voluntary life.” (Wm. James.) 

„The child’s actions are at first impulsive but not voluntary in the 
full sense, since obviously he cannot imagine and intend an act till he 
has had experience of that act, and he must usually have experienced 
doing the act himself before he can effectively imagine it. At least, 
this is true of the simpler movements; compound movements, made up 
of familiar elements, may be first observed in other persons and then 
voluntarily imitated. (Woodworth.) 

^Notice your feelings of desire, choice, decision, effort, conflict, 
impulses and intentions. These feelings and others concerned with 
action are commonly called. States of Will, or Volitional States. 

„Willing. The verb to will is used as a general term to express 
the fact of decision in favor of or consent to any course of action 
which has been the topic of thought. The word is used especially of 
cases where the decision is accompanied by a feeling of effort, where 
we decide against natural tendencies. 

„The Will. — The phrase the will is used most often to mean the 
source of all purposive action. In this sense it equals the general fact 
of connections between mental states and acts ... The special psychology 
of the will is chiefly not a descriptive account of the feelings connected 
with conduct, but an account” of capacities for and habits of action 
and of the connections between thoughts and acts. (Thorndike.) 

Impulsive Action, — „We must at the outset note the different 
meanings attached to the word „impulse.” (1) It is used, in a physio¬ 
logical sense, to express an unstable equilibrium among nerve cells, or 
a tendency to pass into motor action. (2) Impulse on the mental side, 
is a condition of striving toward something not clearly represented in 
consciousness. (3) Impulse is a tendency to act in one direction and 
in one only. The object sought for in impulse is not clearly foreshadowed. 
One is impelled to escape a present state of tension, and for that reason 
he acts.” (Halleck.) 

Reflex Action.— This was discussed in the previous chapter. We may 
add to the previous statements that „most reflexes can be seen to be 
useful to the organism. A large proportion of them are protective in one 
way or another, while others might be called regulative, in that they 
adjust the organism to the conditions affecting it.” 

Reflex action is involuntary and often unconscious. Reflexes are 

Feelings and Emotions. 5 


50 


permanent. That is because they are native or inherent in the organism. 
We can observe them in the new-born child. The reflex connection 
between stimulus and response is something the child brings with him 
into the world, as distinguished from what he has to acquire through 
training and experience, fie does acquire, as he grows up, a tremen¬ 
dous number of habitual responses that become automatic and almost 
unconscious, and these „secondary automatic” reactions resemble reflexes 
pretty closely. Grasping for your hat when you feel the wind taking it 
from your head is an example. These acquired reactions never reach 
the extreme speed of the quickest reflexes, but at best may have the 
speed of the simple reaction. Though often useful enough they are not 
so fundamentally necessary as the reflexes. The reflex connection of 
stimulus and response is something essential, native, closely knit, and 
always ready for action. (Woodworth) 

Instinctive Action. — „Instincts, as now commonly defined, include 
reflexes, and all other connections amongst thoughts, feelings and acts 
which are unlearned, are in us apart from training or experience. Anything 
that we do without having to learn to do it, in brief, is an instinct. 
Thus, crying when pain is felt, starting at a sudden noise, feeling fear 
at large, strange moving objects seen in the dark, feeling anger when 
food is snatched away from one and laughing when tickled, are instincts 
of babyhood; to feel jealousy when rivalled by one of the same sex, 
are instincts of youth.” (Thorndike) 

Instinct and habit. Instincts are a series of reflexes and are inherited, 
while habit depends upon individual experience. „Instinct and habit 
differ so far as concerns the origin of the pattern. In instinct both pattern 
and order are inherited, in habit both are acquired. We do not hesitate 
to define habit as we do instinct—as a complex system of rellexes which 
function in a serial order when the organism is confronted by certain 
stimuli, provided we add the clause which marks off habit from instinct, 
viz., that in habit the order and pattern are acquired during the lifetime 
of the individual animal. After habits are perfected, they function in all 
particulars as do instincts” (Watson) 

Ideomotor Action. — „Involuntary movement is not always sensori¬ 
motor” which means directly aroused by a sensory stimulus; oftener it 
is „ Ideomotor”, or directly aroused by an idea or thought. It may be 
so aroused and still be involuntary. We think of a certain result and 
our muscles produce this result, though we did not really mean to do 
this act ourselves. The thought arouses the movement because it has 
previously been linked with the movement. A thought which has previ¬ 
ously served as the stimulus to an act will tend to have this effect again. 


51 


unless inhibited by some contrary stimulus. There is no need for a 
definite consent to the act, provided there is nothing present to inhibit 
it.” This „ideomotor” action is similar to what is known as volition, 
that is to say the idea is followed by a motor act. 

»Attention and Volition. — No idea can dominate our movements 
which does not catch and hold our attention. Indeed, volition as a strictly 
mental affair is neither more nor less than a matter of attention. When 
we can keep our attention firmly fixed upon a line of conduct, to the 
exclusion of all competitors, our decision is already made ... It is by 
means of our ideas that we anticipate the future and project for ourselves 
the lines of our conduct, but it is by means of attention that we actually 
succeed in making some one of the anticipatory ideas real in the form 
of action. Attention must have something to work upon, and this some¬ 
thing is supplied in the form of sensational and ideational presentations. 
Attention is the function in which mental possibility becomes motor ac¬ 
tuality.” (Angell) 

„Feeling, Emotion, and Sentiment in Volition. —Although but little 
explicit attention has been called to the matter, it must be obvious that 
feeling, emotion and sentiment are tremendously important determinants 
of volition. Many of the emotions have native motor expressions. Strong 
feeling of any kind is distinctly motor in tendency. Pleasure and pain 
are cardinal factors in guiding conduct. While all this is admitted, and, 
indeed, insisted upon, it must not be forgotten that in so far as volition 
is a process in which we anticipate actions, it must involve perception 
and ideas. It is these elements in our feelings and emotions by means 
of which we succeed in making appropriate and effective responses to 
given situations, rather than random ones. Emotion and feeling are in¬ 
deed dynamic, but they have definite direction. We are afraid of some 
specific thing. We are covetous of some particular honour. The object 
toward or away from which we feel impelled is represented by some 
perception or idea, and it is these elements in the emotion which give 
it effective direction. To say, then, that an emotion or a feeling or a 
sentiment may determine a voluntary act, is only to say that a certain 
form of perception or idea may do so.” 

3. 

Physiological point of view 

The first thing that a physiologist would think of in observing 
Plates VI and VII would be perhaps the muscles of the face, because 
the various expressions of the face are caused by the action of voluntary 
muscles, fie perhaps would also visualize the facial muscles, and he 

5* 


52 


would realize the fact that these muscles are merely a part of the 
great muscular system. He is also aware of the fact that the muscles 
could not be put into action without the aid of the nerves; and that 
these nerves are merely a part of the great nervous system. He knows 
that the cerebrum is the part of the nervous system upon which our 
varied experiences leave their impressions and through which these im¬ 
pressions are made to influence the movements of the body. He knows 
that certain forms of the work of the cerebrum are localized and that 
although the portions having to do with sight, voluntary motion, speech, 
and hearing have been rather accurately determined, much of the cerebral 
surface is still undetermined. He is aware of the statement which we 
have emphasized so often, that the reflex action or circuit is the working 
unit of the nervous system; and that voluntary action differs in one 
essential respect from that of reflex action. The former is nonvolitional 
and the latter volitional; both are responses executed with the help of 
nervous tissue. He has also learned that the neurone is the structural 
unit of the nervous system. 

By means of association of ideas the physiologist may picture or 
visualize the blood-vessels, knowing that these are merely a part of a 
system of tubes known as the circulatory system. 

Knowing that man is a cell colony, he may visualize the various 
cells; and he will realize the fact that it is the muscle-cell which is 
responsible for /the expression of the feelings and the emotions”, as 
seen in the face and in the attitude of the whole body. These muscle- 
cells form what is known as muscles, and there are over 500 of them 
in an individual. 

We have now a pretty fair picture of the thoughts which occupy a 
physiologist’s mind. These ideas are acquired by studying the facts as 
given in physiological text books (social inheritance); and some facts 
may be acquired through individual experiences. The physiologist may 
also recall the authors of the various books and articles: Huxley, Verworn, 
Howell, Stewart, Burton-Opitz, Tilney and Riley, Pike, etc., and Gray’s 
and Gerrish’s anatomical works; and Bell’s anatomy of expression. 

4. 

The physicist’s point of view 

Let us now observe Plates VI and VII from the physicist’s point 
of view. It may be convenient here to explain why we introduce facts 
of a science by some one’s point of view. This has been done to draw 
our attention to the fact that scientists also have minds and bodies and 


53 


the perceptions and images of their respective sciences are impressed 
upon their sensitive nervous systems to such an extent that unconsciously 
they are influenced by them. That is, in specializing, their minds are 
set with certain systematized knowledge, and they speak a language 
which only the initiated understand. Every one is interested in thoughts 
and feelings, but popular or commonsense knowledge differs from that 
of the technical scientists. Thus the psychologist’ sees in the photographs 
the representations of the expressions of consciousness (thoughts, feelings, 
emotions, will, attention, etc.) The physiologist sees the action and 
reaction of an individual due to sensori-neuro-muscular action etc.; 
while the physicist, as' we shall see, will find some kind of motion or 
movement due to vibration which he measures. It is of the utmost 
importance for us to know that our „mind set” may influence our 
reactions. The proof of this may be seen in Chapter V; and our own 
experiences with different individuals will verify the fact. 

Then again, in drawing the attention to a scientist’s point of view 
in connection with Plates VI and VII, we are bearing in mind several 
things while we are assembling enough.facts to aid us in tracing a 
physical fact to that of a mental fact: (1) The thoughts or ideas of the 
scientist which are expressed in „words”; (2) the facial and bodily 
expressions of thoughts and feelings of an adult as expressed in the 
photographs; (3) the instinctive or reflex facial expressions of characteristic 
feelings accompanying sensations of an infant which are to be compared 
with the expressions of an adult. That is not to lose sight of the fact 
that all complex mental development gradually grew out of the sense 
experience of the infant. 

Now, then, the very first thing that would strike the physicist in 
observing Plates VI and VII would be perhaps the structure of the clock, 
i. e., spring, dial, hand, face, case, stem-winder etc. 

He would then think of the motion of the clock and the work 
put into it in order to produce an action, which measures the unit 

of time part of the time from noon to noon). The face of the 

clock is turned toward the individual who seems to be just as aware 
of the fact as is the scientist that this time piece actually measures 
our very life. For what other reason should a clock be on the table 
while an individual is at work, unless it is either to measure the amount 
of labor that can be accomplished in a given time, or to stop work 
altogether for the day? In fact, experience has taught us that we gauge 
our whole life according to the timepiece, and that our existence begins 



54 


with the fraction of a second in which we take in our first breath and 
ends in the fraction of the second in which the last breath is expired. 

The unit of time may arouse other associations as the unit of 
length, the metre, which makes it possible not only to measure a given 
point in a body or in space but by the combination of these two units, 
we may actually measure the unseen sound waves which proceed from 
the clock, and which are picked up by a sense organ, the ear, which 
sends the message by means of nerves to the brain, and gives us the 
consciousness of hearing „tic, toe.” We may also measure the light 
waves which give us our sensation of sight, and the various colors. 

Then again the above mentioned units of measurement would bring 
up the association of the unit of mass, that is the unit by which 
bodies such as the clock or human body are weighed. The physicist 
is also aware of all the other measurements which are derived from 
these three fundamental units. 

As we naturally cannot go into the discussion of all the sciences, 
we will merely define and contrast the two physical sciences chemistry 
and physics, and then proceed with the physicist’s point of view. 

„Physics is that branch of physical science which treats of the 
phenomena presented to us by bodies or masses of matter as such. 
(Matter is anything whose existence is revealed to us by our senses.) 
Chemistry is that branch of physical science which treats of the ultimate 
composition of bodies, and the changes which this composition may 
undergo. — „In common with physics it includes the determination of 
properties or characters which serve to distinguish one substance from 
another, but while the physicist is concerned with properties possessed 
by all substances and with processes in which the molecules remain 
intact, the chemist is restricted to those processes in which the 
molecules undergo some change. For example, the physicist determines 
the density, elasticity, hardness, electrical and thermal conductivity, 
thermal expansion, etc.; the chemist, on the other hand, investigates 
changes in composition, such as may be effected by an electric current, 
by heat, or when two or more substances are mixed. A further differ¬ 
entiation of the provinces of chemistry and physics is shown by the 
classifications of matter. To the physicist matter is presented in three 
leading forms — solids, liquids and gases; and although further sub¬ 
divisions have been rendered necessary with the growth of knowledge 
the same principle is retained, namely, a classification based on properties 
having no relation to composition. The fundamental chemical classification 
of matter, on the other hand, recognizes two groups of substances, 
namely, elements, which are substances not admitting of analysis into 


55 


other substances, and compounds, which do admit of analysis into 
simpler substances and also of synthesis from simpler substances. 
Chemistry and physics, however, meet on common ground in a well- 
defined branch of science, namely physical chemistry, which is primarily 
concerned with the correlation of physical properties and chemical 
composition, and, more generally, with the elucidation of natural 
phenomena on the molecular theory”. 

Now will be given a brief sketch of important facts which are all 
impressed upon the physicist’s mind in such a manner that the ideas 
or thoughts are a part of his whole being. And to those who are not 
physicists it is of the utmost importance either to refresh their memories 
with certain facts, or if such ideas have never been retained, it is 
necessary now to become acquainted with them. In following the 
statements given below, we should have in mind that the physicist 
considers the clock, the human individual, animals, rivers, lake, air, 
moon, stars, sun, earth, etc., as bodies of matter which may be 
measured. As we are here particularly interested in the human body 
and mind, it would be well to remember that the facts and laws as given 
by the physicist also apply to the human body which is a mass of 
matter. 

Some General Principles as Given in Ganot’s Physics: 

1. Object of Physics — The object of Physics is the study of the 
phenomena presented to us by bodies. 

2. Matter—That which possesses the properties whose existence 
is revealed to us by our senses, we call matter or substance. 

3. Atoms, Molecules — From various properties of bodies, we 
conclude that the matter of which they are formed is not perfectly 
continuous, but consists of an aggregate of an immense number 
of exceedingly small portions or atoms of matter. These atoms 
cannot be divided physically; they are retained side by side, 
without touching each other, being separated by distances which 
are great in comparison with their supposed dimensions. 

A group of two or more atoms forms a molecule, so that a 
body may be considered as an aggregate of very small molecules, 
and these again as aggregates of still smaller atoms. The smallest 
masses of matter we ever obtain artificially are particles, and 
not molecules or atoms. 

4. Molecular state of bodies — With respect to the molecules of bodies 
three different stages of aggregation present themselves. First, 
the solid state, as observed in wood, stone, metals, etc., at the 
ordinary temperature. The distinctive character of this state is, 


56 


that the relative position of the molecules of the bodies is fixed 
and cannot be changed without the expenditure of more or less 
force. Solid bodies tend, therefore, to retain whatever form may 
have been given to them by nature or by art. 

Secondly, the liquid state, as observed in water, alcohol, 
oil, etc. Here the relative position of the molecules is no longer 
fixed, the molecules glide past each other with the greatest ease, 
and the body assumes with readiness the form of any vessel in 
which it may be placed. 

Thirdly, the gaseous state, as in air or in hydrogen. In 
gases the mobility of the molecules is still greater than in liquids; 
but the distinctive character of a gas is its incessant struggle to 
occupy a greater space, in consequence of which a gas has neither 
an independent form nor an independent volume, for this depends 
upon the pressure to which it is subject. 

The general term fluid is applied to both liquids and gases. 
Most simple bodies, and many compound ones, may be made to 
pass successively through all the three states. Water presents the 
most familiar example of this. Sulphur, iodine, mercury, phos¬ 
phorous, and zinc are other instances. 

5. Physical phenomena, laws, and theories — Every change 
which can happen to a body, actual alteration of its chemical 
constitution being excepted, may be regarded as a physical 
phenomenon. 

A physical law is the constant relation which exists between 
any phenomenon and its cause . . . 

6. Physical agents. — In our attempts to ascend from a phenomenon 
to its cause, we assume the existence of physical agents, or 
natural forces acting upon matter; as examples of such we 
have gravitation, heat, light, magnetism, and electricity. 

Since these physical agents are disclosed to us only by their 
effects, their intimate nature is completely unknown. In the present 
state of science, we cannot say whether they are properties inherent 
in matter, or whether they result from movements impressed on 
the mass of subtile and imponderable forms of matter diffused 
through the universe. The latter hypothesis is, however, generally 
admitted. This being so, it may be further asked, are there several 
distinct forms of imponderable matter, or are they in reality but 
one and the same? As the physical sciences extend their limits, 
the opinion tends to prevail that there is a* subtile, imponderable', 


57 


and eminently elastic fluid called the ether distributed through 
the entire universe; it pervades the mass of all bodies, the densest 
and most opaque, as well as the lightest or the most transparent. 
It is also considered that the ultimate particles of which matter 
is made up are capable of definite motions varying in character 
and velocity, which can be communicated to the ether. A motion 
of a particular kind communicated to the ether can give rise to 
the phenomenon of heat; a motion of the same kind, but of greater 
frequency, produces light; and it is now pretty certain that a motion 
different in form or in character is the cause of electricity. Not 
merely do the atoms of bodies communicate motion to the atoms 
of the ether, but the latter can impart it to the former. Thus the 
atoms of bodies are at once the sources and the recipients of the 
motion. All physical phenomena, referred thus to a single cause, 
are but transformation of motion.” 

Henry Crew* introduces the first chapter in his General Physics 
on „The Science of Motion” thus: 

„Kirchhoff (1824—1886), a distinguished German physicist, first 
clearly pointed out that the aim of the physicist is to describe the 
motions of the bodies completely and in the simplest possible 
manner. But since a body is a limited portion of matter, which 
we may consider as made up of a number of small particles, 
it will be simpler to consider first the motion of a particle and 
then pass to the consideration of bodies in motion . ..” 

„Matter”, he says, „is something with which we are familiar 
in a general way from our earliest years; on the other hand, 
investigators in physical science have spent centuries in studying 
the various peculiarities of matter, and have not yet succeeded 
in defining it in terms of anything simpler. Much has recently 
been discovered to commend the view that matter will ultimately 
be found to consist of electricity in motion; but at present this 
idea is merely a suggestive hypothesis.” 

These facts are all described in detail in text books on physics 
such as those by Henry Crew, Mulliken and Gale, etc. Here it is 
possible to dwell only on the most important points, in order not 
only to orient ourselves in this science, but to get the connecting 
link between what is called the physical and the psychical. 
We shall see later that one great scientist has actually described 
this transition for us. We will continue our discussion by defining 
some well known facts in physics so that we may understand 
their language. 


58 


Motion and force: 

1. Motion is change of position. 

2. Force is that which moves or stops a body or tends to do so. 

3. The motions of matter give rise to energy. 

4. Energy is the power of doing work. 

(a) Energy is that which diminishes when work is done by an 
amount equal to the work so done. 

, (b) Since the work which a system can do is the measure of 
its energy, the same unit is employed for energy as for work, 
viz., the erg. 

(c) The energy which a body possesses in virtue of its position 
is called Potential Energy. 

(d) The energy which a body possesses in virtue of its speed is 
called Kinetic Energy. 

5. Force has intensity and motion has velocity. 

6. We consider Newton‘s third law of motion of great importance to 
us because it verifies the statements of both the physiologists 
who say that there can be no action without a corresponding 
reaction; and the psychologists who say there is no stimulus 
without a response. Newton states his third law of motion thus: 
„To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Since 
force is measured by rate at which momentum changes, this is only 
another way of saying that whenever one body acquires momentum 
some other body always acquires an equal and opposite momentum. 
Thus when a man jumps from a boat to the shore, we all know that 
the boat experiences a backward thrust; when a bullet is shot from 
a gun the gun recoils, or „kicks”. The essence of the assertion 
of the third law is that the mass of the man times his velocity 
is equal to the mass of the boat times its velocity, and that the 
mass of the bullet times its velocity. The truth of this assertion 
has been established by a great variety of careful experiments.” 

7. Momentum: The quantity of motion that a moving body has is 
called its momentum. 

8. Heat consists of the motion of the molecules of matter, and is 
a form of energy. 

9. Electricity: We do not know just what electricity is. We know, 
however, that it is the common cause of a great variety of inter¬ 
esting phenomena. Any two different substances when rubbed 
together, or even when brought into contact, become electrified. 
This is known as the First Law of Electrostatics. 


59 — 


10. Radiant Energy: 

The sun is intensely hot; in other words, its molecules are 
in very active vibration. These vibrations of hot molecules produce 
waves in a medium called the ether, just as the vibrations of a 
sounding tuning-fork produce waves in the air. These waves travel 
through the ether with the very great velocity of about 186,000 miles 
a second. When they fall upon ordinary bodies, they warm them; 
when they fall upon the eye, they produce the effect that we call 
vision or seeing. The difference in the sensations of warmth 
and vision produced by the ether-waves does not depend upon 
any difference in the waves, but upon the differences of the bodies 
upon which the waves fall. 

The propagation of ether-waves through space is called radiation. 
The energy carried by the ether waves is called radiant energy. 

11. Light. 

The part of radiant energy that can excite vision constitutes 
light. We see objects only when they send light to the eye. The 
ether-waves that produce the effects of different color differ only 
in wave length. 


Consciousness 

of 

No. Vibrations 
per second 

Wave-lengths 

Red . 

450 billions 

687 -f millionths of a 

millemeter 

Yellow. 

526 „ 

588 + 

n n » 

V 

Green. 

589 „ 

526 

n » n 

•» 

Blue. 

640 „ 

484 

» » » 

n 

Violet. 

770 „ 

392 + 

n » » 

n 


12. Sound: 

Sound is caused by the rapid vibrations of some body of 
matter. Sound is a wave motion that is capable of producing the 
sensation of hearing. 

Sound. The following statement made by Henry Crew in his 
chapter on „sound” is of great interest to us as we shall see. 

„In taking up the study of any group of phenomena which are 
perceived by one of our senses, we are always confronted by three 
problems: 

(1) The first of these is the origin and transmission of the disturbance 
or stimulus, which is detected by the senses in question; a purely 
physical problem. 











60 


(2) Next there is the structure and function of the sense organ which 
detects the disturbance; a purely physiological problem. 

(3) Then there is the purely psychological problem involved in the 
translation of physiological stimulation into perception.” 

We thus see that the combination of these three sciences will give 
us the transition of the physical fact to that of the psychical. We will 
now quote from Tyndall’s excellent lectures on sound at length, because 
he actually described for us the transition of a physical fact to that of 
a mental fact. Tyndall begins his first lecture on sound thus: 

„The various nerves in the human body have their origin in the 
brain, which is the seat of sensation. When a finger is wounded, the 
sensor nerves convey to the brain intelligence of injury; while if these 
nerves be severed, however serious the hurt may be, no pain is experienced. 
We have the strongest reason for believing that what the nerves convey 
to the brain is in all cases motion. The motion here meant is not, 
however, that of the nerve as a whole, but of its molecules or smallest 
particles. 

In the different parts of the brain to which they are communicated, 
the molecular motions of the nerves excite sensations of different kinds. 
Thus the motions sent forward from the tongue and palate have their 
correlative in the sense of taste; the motions sent from the retina along 
the optic nerve awake the sense or consciousness of light; while the 
motions .. . which are transmitted by the auditory nerve, produce in 
the brain the sensation of sound. 

„Applying a flame to a small collodion balloon which contains a 
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, the gases explode, and every ear in 
this room is conscious of a shock, which we name a sound. How was 
this shock transmitted from the balloon to our organs of hearing? Have 
the exploding gases shot the air-particles against the auditory nerve as 
a gun shoots a ball against a target? No doubt, in the neighborhood 
of the balloon, there is to some extent a propulsion of particles; but no 
particle of air from the vicinity of the balloon reached the ear of any 
person here present. The process was this: When the flame touched 
the mixed gases they combined chemically, and their union was accom¬ 
panied by the development of intense heat. The heated air expanded 
suddenly, forcing the surrounding air violently away on all sides. This 
motion of the air close to the balloon was rapidly imparted to that a 
little further off, the air first set in motion coming at the same time to 
rest. The air, at a little distance, passed its motion on to the air at a 
greater distance, and came also in its turn to rest. Thus each shell of 
air, if I may use the term, surrounding the balloon took up the motion 


61 


of the shell next preceding, and transmitted it to the next succeeding 
shell, the motion being thus propagated as a pulse or wave through 
the air. 

„The motion of the pulse must not be confounded with the motion 
of the particles which at any moment constitute the pulse. For while 
the wave moves forward through considerable distances, each particular 
particle of air makes only a small excursion to and fro. 

,,The process may be rudely represented by the propagation of motion 
through a row of glass balls, such as are employed in the game of soli¬ 
taire. Placing the balls along a groove thus, fig. 4, each of them touching 
its neighbour, and urging one of them against the end of the row; the 
motion thus imparted to the first ball is delivered up to the second, the 
motion of the second is delivered up to the third, the motion of the 
third is imparted to the fourth; each ball, after having given up its 
motion, returning itseft to rest. The last ball only of the row flies away. 
In a similar way is sound conveyed from layer to layer through the air. 


Fig. 4. 



„The air which fills the external cavity of the ear is finally driven 
against the tympanic membrane, which is stretched across the passage 
leading fiom the external air towards the brain. The vibrations of this 
membrane, which closes outwardly the ,drum’ of the ear, are transmitted 
through a series of bones to another membrane, which closes the drum 
inwardly, thence through water to the ends of the auditory nerve, and 
afterwards along the nerve to the brain. Here the physical becomes 
psychical, mechanical vibrations giving birth to the consciousness of sound. 

„Scientific education ought to teach us to see the invisible as well 
as the visible in nature; to picture with the vision of the mind these 
operations which entirely elude bodily vision. With regard to the point 
now under consideration, we must endeavor to form a definite image of 
a wave of sound ... We must, in short, be able to seize the conception 
that a sonorous wave consists of two portions, in the one of which the 
air is more dense, and in the other of which it is less dense than usual. 



— 62 - 

A condensation and a rarefaction, then, are the two constituents of a 
wave of sound.” 

It would carry us too far to give a detailed account of all the facts 
concerned when we consider that Tyndall gives 453 closely printed pages 
with excellent illustrations on sound alone. Huxley gives 30 pages to 
the description of the ear and the sense of hearing. Gerish devotes 
14- 1 / 2 pages to the anatomy of the ear, while Angell gives a concise 
statement which takes over seven pages on the sensation of hearing. We 
will, however, give another illustration of sound such as is produced by 
the human voice. The sounds of the vowels are considered as music, 
and the consonants are known as noises. Both noise and music constitute 
speech. 

As far as sensation goes, everybody knows the difference between 
noise and music. „But we have now to inquire into the causes of 
sensation, and to make ourselves acquainted which the condition of the 
external air which in one case resolves itself into music and in another 
into noise .. . Were our organs sharp enough to see the motion of the 
air through which an agreeable voice is passing, we might see stamped 
upon that air the conditions of motion on which the sweetness of the 
voice depends. In ordinary conversation, also, the physical precedes and 
arouses the psychical; the spoken language, which is to give us pleasure 
or pain, which is to rouse us to anger or soothe us to peace, existing 
for a time, between us and the speaker, as a purelly mechanical condition 
of the intervening air. 

„ Noise affects us as an irregular succession of shock. We are conscious 
while listening to it of a jolting and jarring of the auditory nerve, while 
a musical sound flows smoothly and without asperity or irregularity. 
How is this smoothness secured? By rendering the impulses received 
by the tympanic membrane perfectly periodic. A periodic motion 
is one that repeats itself. The motion of a common pendulum, for example, 
is periodic, but its vibrations are far too sluggish to excite sonorous 
waves, To produce a musical tone we must have a body which vibrates 
with the unerring regularity of the pendulum, but which must impart 
much sharper and quicker shocks to the air. 

„The only condition necessary to the production of a musical sound 
is that the pulses should succeed each other in the same interval of time* 
No matter what its origin may be, if this condition be fulfilled the sound 
becomes musical. If a watch, for example, could be caused to tick with 
sufficient rapidity—say one hundred times a second—the ticks would 
lose their individuality and blend to a musical tone .. 

We have thus far given a brief outline of the sensation of hearing 


63 


and have traced a physical fact to its basis of a mental fact. We 
have seen how a vibratory motion is communicated to the air and trans¬ 
mitted through it in the form of waves which strike the tympanic mem¬ 
brane causing it to vibrate. The vibrations thus set up are transmitted 
by the auditory nerve to the brain, modifying it, and giving us the cons¬ 
ciousness of sound. 

Tyndall and other physicists state that the action of sound is exactly 
the same as that of light and the radiant heat. They also tell us that 
contact or friction also produces heat or electricity. 

We may conclude that the temperature sense, and the sense organ 
of sight, as well as all the other senses, pick up their vibratory motion 
in a manner somewhat analagous to that of the ear in the sense that 
the motion of each particle is passed on until the physical becomes 
the psychical. 

It must not be forgotten that everything which occupies space is 
matter and that the smallest particle is definitely determined by the 
physicist, and since a particle of matter is a particle whether it exists 
as a solid, liquid or gas (fluid) we may consider that we have accomp¬ 
lished our plan of tracing the transition of a physical fact such as 
chair, etc., to that of a psychical or mental fact. We must merely apply 
Tyndall’s method to that of all the other senses, and all of them 
combined will* give us the transition of the most complex physical fact 
to that of a mental fact. It may be profitable to see just how the 
physicists measure great masses of body and great distances. Dolbear 
in his „Matter, Ether, and Motion” says: 

„Matter presents itself to our senses in a scale of magnitude from 
particles in the neighborhood of the hundred thousandth part of an 
inch in diameter, and requiring the highest powers of the microscope 
to see, to such huge masses as that of the earth, eight thousand miles 
in diameter, the planet Jupiter, nearly eighty thousand miles, and the 
sun, eight hundred thousand miles in diameter, while some of the more 
distant stars are probably ten times larger than the sun. The large 
masses, however, are but collections of smaller ones, each particle 
bringing its own properties of whatever kinds they may be; and it does 
not appear that new qualities are developed by simply changing the 
distance between bodies. So the properties of matter may be studied 
exhaustively without employing specimens inconveniently large. 

„The thin stratum of gold spread upon cheap jewelry has all the 
characteristics and qualities of any specimen of gold however large; 
and a small test tube of hydrogen will exhibit all the kinds of phenomena 
that any larger quantity would show. For such reasons the study of 


64 


the universe of matter can be carried, on in the laboratory. The universe 
may be in the crucible one holds in the tongs; whatever difference 
there may seem to be, it will really be one of bigness only.” 

Thus a physical fact, such as „ chair” or any other physical object 
as bird, person, dog, cat, trees, stone, sun, earth, etc., may be traced from 
the physical fact until it becomes what is known as a psychical fact. We 
must only not lose sight of the fact that everything which occupies space 
or takes up room is matter, the particles of which may be separated as 
in air or any other gas; they may be loosely held together as in a liquid; 
or they may be firmly held together as in a solid. Matter exists in all 
of these forms, and all of them may be found in the human body. 

Let us again repeat that scientists, as we have seen, tell us that 
matter is anything, the existence of which is revealed to us by our senses. 
This, therefore, is the statement of all scientists that knowledge of any 
kind is only possible when it is revealed to us through our senses. Thus 
the statements which we made in the preceding chapter that it is through 
sensation that we get knowledge which leads to the intellectual state, 
and it is through sensation that we get knowledge which leads to the 
emotional or feeling state, is verified. However, we name these actions 
or behaviors of matter, whether it is given in the terminology of physics, 
chemistry, physiology or any other science, its existence is revealed to 
us by our senses. Consciousness” which is studied by the psychologists 
as thoughts, feelings, emotions, memories, ets., and reduced to terms of 
sensation is reduced by the physiologist to still lower terms to reflex 
action (sensori-neuro-muscular or sensori-neuro-glandular). And this 
again is reduced to still lower terms by the physicist to particles of 
matter which may be free, held loosely or firmly. 

In the previous chapters we mentioned that the human individual 
is a limited body, possessing limited sense organs; therefore it will be 
well to note that the eye is sensitive only to ether vibrations and has 
its limitations. The ear is sensitive to air vibrations only, and has 
also its limitations. The nose is sensitive to certain vibrating volatile 
particles. The skin and tongue get their vibrations through contact. 
Hence we see some sort of vibration or other is the ultimate cause 
of sensation. 

Vibration, one will remember, is the basis of all phenomena in the 
universe. Without the heat and light vibrations of the sun there would 
be no life, no sciences and hence no psychology. Some day some 
scientist will be able to define each word in terms of vibration. This 
is not so difficult as it would seem, for the words surprise, terror, fear- 
words, that express emotions-represent merely so and so many organic 


65 


vibrations, which it may be possible some day to compute. This may 
be no more difficult than to compote the limits of the spectrum, which 
has been done, defining such words as red, yellow, green, blue, 
violet, etc., in terms of vibration. Then again, although in 1850 
it was thought (by 3. Muller) that it would be impossible to get the 
speed of a nerve impulse, yet two years later, Helmholtz measured the 
speed. 

The point which we wish to bring out is that, if it is possible to 
measure speed of nerve impulse, know limits of sight and hearing, it 
may be possible to compute the vibration of ideas and feelings centrally 
aroused. By this I mean that just as a definite number of vibrations 
of heat, light, sound, etc. impress the nervous system, the reflection or 
expression of these vibrations by the nervous system may also be 
exactly computed in terms of vibration. (2) Scripture says: „We are 
all familiar with commercial and physical measurements; we have all 
measured butter or cloth, temperature or electric potential. But are there 
such things as ,mental’ measurements? Can we measure our sensitiveness, 
our judgment, our will power, our memory, our feelings, our beliefs? 
Many of these can be measured without difficulty, others only roughly, 
still others not at all. For none of them, however, is measurement 
impossible; the same fundamental method is applicable in all cases, and 
if it has not been applied to all mental phenomena, the fault lies in 
the lack of men of ability to devise the means of applying it.” (Scripture: 
„The New Psychology.”) 

Thorndike in his „Mental and Social Measurements" speaks of the 
special difficulties of Mental measurements: „Such measurements, which 
involve human capacities and acts, are subject to certain special diffi¬ 
culties, due chiefly to (1) the absence or imperfection of units in which 
to measure, (2) the lack of constancy in the facts measured, and (3) the 
extreme complexity of the measurements to be made.” 

He adds that „to replace the crude and vague comparatives and 
superlatives and other words descriptive of different amounts of various 
mental and social facts by reference to scales of accepted meaning in 
terms of observable facts is indeed one of the first and greatest duties 
of the mental scientists.” 

We thus arrive at the very first question which we asked ourselves 
in the beginning of the opening chapter. „What are words?” This 
question will be answered in more detail in the following chapters. 
Here we will mention that all that we have said so far was to prove 
that „words” are merely air vibrations which are symbols and represent 
a mass of sensations which developed into thoughts and feelings. We 

Feelings and Emotions. 6 


66 


have seen that even words may cause pleasure or pain, the cause of 
which we will not discuss here, § but what is important for us is to 
emphasize the fact that not only words but all sensations are due to 
some vibratory motion, the particles of which send their motion from 
one particle to another until the physical becomes the psychical, and we 
get the consciousness of an object such as chair, person, sun, moon, 
tree, book, air, sound etc. accompanied by a characteristic feeling. 

In the previous chapter, we mentioned that the natural or normal 
feeling state is that of pleasure, and that other forms of feelings or 
emotions are merely deviations of the normal or pleasurable state. The 
intensity of the vibration which gives us joy or grief may cause injury 
to the nervous system or even death; the intensity of the vibrations 
which give us the sensations of sound, light, heat, cold, etc., may cause 
injury or destruction to the sense organ. 

Thus we may conclude that the human individual is a limited body 
of matter; and the characteristic feelings and emotions accompanying 
a sensation or perception may first be caused by the regular or irregular 
pulse which is picked up by a sense organ and then reflected to a 
motor cell; second, by the intensity of the stimulus, whether it is a 
regular or an irregular pulse; and third, by the action of the ingrained 
pattern in the neuromuscular mechanism which informs us or the observer 
of our feeling or emotional reactions. 

With Prof. Cattell, we may state that „images are revivals of past 
sensations, and perceptions are mainly supplied by conditions of the, 
central nervous system. Images and perceptions are equally the result 
of brain changes, which are themselves part of the world’d material 
system.” (3) 

We mentioned that the cerebrum is the part of the Nervous System 
upon which our varied experiences leave their impression and through 
which these impressions are made to influence the movements of the 
body. We also stated that „involuntary movement is not always sensori¬ 
motor, which means directly aroused by a sensory stimulus; often it is 
„Ideomotor”, or directly aroused by an idea or thought.” 

The above facts account for the expressive movements, or what is 
known as the expression of the feelings and emotions, which we consider 
part and parcel of the emotions, accompanying sensation as shown in 
Chapter II; and accounts for the expressive movements as seen in the 
face and the attitude of the body, which were aroused by ideas or 
thoughts, as shown in Plates VI and VII, and . in the various other 
photographs given in the following chapters. 



Chapter IV 

Expression of feelings-emotions 

Natural and conventional language 

Thus far, we have said enough to convince us that the statement 
we made in the first chapter, that to understand an experience, we 
must have a thorough knowledge of psychology, physiology and physics, 
etc., is not an exaggerated one. We must also be aware of the fact 
that there are many sciences as well as arts that have not been mentioned, 
and what is of great importance for us to know, is that* each observer 
would interpret an object such as Plates VI and VII or any other object, 
in his own particular way. The inclination would be to interpret it just 
the way his sensitive nervous system had been impressed, e. i., the 
linguist, and let us take Max Muller for an example, who tells us that 
„thought is impossible without language and that language forms the 
organ of thought, as much as the eye forms the organ of sight, and 
that the first, if not the only, subject which every true philosopher has 
to deal with, is language.” fie then asks the question „Can we know 
anything of this organ? We study the structure of the eyes till we 
can imitate it by a kind of artificial eye, called spectacles. The theory 
of vision has revealed many secrets to us, has warned us against many 
illusions, has, so to say, opened our eyes, so that it leaves us, in the 
end, aware of those illusions, even though unable to fight against them.” 

This statement is quoted from „Science of Thought” (618 pages) 
in which Max Muller reduces thoughts to the lowest terms sensations. 
This fact is enough for our purpose and we may conclude that the 
organ that he had in mind could be no other- than the Nervous System 
which consists of the brain, spinal cord, etc., the cells of which are 
impressed and react in the manner described due to habit formation. 
We have seen that the child is equipped the very first day with what 
is called natural language, and only later on does it learn to use what 
may be termed conventional language. We must not lose sight of the 
facts that thoughts are just as fleeting as emotions, and that it is 
through conventional language which is an invention, that both thoughts 
and emotions may be made permanent. Now let us see what others 
besides Max Muller say of language. 

6 * 


68 


if the term language Is what most books agree that it is, then it 
is an instrument by which we make other people understand what we 
mean. Thomson in his „Outline of the Laws of Thought” says: „language, 
in its most general acceptation might be described as a mode of 
expressing our thoughts by means of motions ot the organs of the body; 
it would thus include spoken words, cries and involuntary gestures that 
indicate the feelings, even painting and sculpture, together with those 
contrivances which replace speech in situations where it cannot be 
employed, — the telegraph, the trumpet-call, the emblem, the hieroglyphic. 
For the present, however, we may limit it to its most obvious signifi¬ 
cation; it is a system of articulate words adopted by convention to 
represent outwardly the internal proofs of thinking.” 

In Dewey’s words which are found in his book on „How We Think”, 
„language includes much more than oral and written speech. Gestures, 
pictures, monuments, visual images, finger movements — anything 
consciously employed as a sign is logically language.” Hazard again 
tells us „that we use the term language as applicable to every method 
of imparting ideas; and by the term signs, when used in relation to 
language, we mean to embrace words, and every other representation 
of those ideas.” Joseph Baldwin says that language in its broadest 
sense „includes all communication from the inner to the outer world. 
Motion is the means used. Take away motion and the Universe becomes 
silent and dumb. 

„1. Language is the intentional expression of cognitions, feelings, 
and purposes, by means of motion. Self, as action, utters ideas, emotions, 
and determinations by signs, by sounds, and by symbols. 

„2. Reflex action supplements volition. You intentionally speak to 
your friend; what proportion of the movements are reflex? You intent¬ 
ionally write a letter; how much of the action is reflex? You play and 
sing; how largely are the movements reflex? You carve a Madonna; 
what proportion of the movements are reflex? Some estimate that fully 
nine-tenths of the movements in these acts are striclty reflex. How 
infinitely wonderful are speech and song and art! 

„3. Music, the language of the emotions, is a thing of motion. 
Destroy movement, and dead silence reigns.” 

In Judd’s „Psychology,” there is an excellent chapter on language 
a part of which we will quote because it sums up for us some important 
facts which we have already emphasized. 

„The psychological explanation of language must begin with a 
general reference to the statements made in earlier chapters. Every 
sensory stimulation arouses some form of bodily activity. The muscles 


69 


of the organs of circulation and the muscles of the limbs, as well as 
other internal and external muscles, are constantly engaged in making 
responses to external stimuli. Among the muscles of the body which 
with the others are involved in expressive activities are the muscles 
which control the organs of respiration. There can be no stimulation 
of any kind which does not affect more or less the character of the 
movements of inspiration and expiration. In making these general 
statements, we find no necessity for distinguishing between the animals, 
and man; so far as the general facts of relation between sensations and 
expression are concerned, they have like characteristics. That an air- 
breathing animal should produce sounds through irregularities in its 
respiratory movements when it is excited by an external stimulus, 
especially if that stimulus is violent, is quite as natural as that its hair 
should rise when it is afraid or that its muscles should tremble when 
it is aroused to anger or to flight. 

„The important step in the development of language is the acquire¬ 
ment of the ability to use the movements of the vocal cords for purposes 
other than those of individual emotional expression. The acquirement 
of this ability is a matter of long evolution and depends in its first 
stages upon imitation. The function of imitation as a means of com¬ 
munication between animals appears as soon as animals begin to live 
in packs or herds or other social groups . ♦ 

We again find what was mentioned several times that some move¬ 
ment due to muscular contraction is necessary for the expression 
of consciousness. As speech evolved before writing, a few words in 
regard to it will not be out of place. 


Speech 

„The possession of speech has always been considered as a distinctive 
mark of the human race, and indeed, as far as we can learn from 
' history or ethnography, in no age and in no part of the globe do we 
meet with a people without a language. Although races are known which 
in this respect are at a very low standard of development, and which 
possess a language which is very poor both in its form and in the 
expression of ideas, they still nevertheless do possess a language, which 
answers to their humble condition and is sufficient for their different 
wants. 

„ln fact, the possession of speech cannot be prized too highly, 
since its possession serves the whole human race as the starting-point 
towards the acquirement of a progressive development and of civilization; 


V 


— 70 — 

it is the chief means by which the ideas and thoughts of individuals 
are communicated to their fellows, and the knowledge of one generation 
transmitted to the next. When again, we consider that speech is the 
means by which feelings of every kind are communicated and excited, 
whether in the various forms of speech or in the higher forms of poetry 
and song, we shall not hesitate to distinguish language as the centre 
of the entire mental and intellectual life of man. 

„If we analyze speech, we find that it is nothing more than a 
combination of separate sounds; that these sounds are noises which 
are produced by the expired air, with which tones of a musical kind, 
produced by the same means can unite as supplementary components .. . 

Writing 

Writing, the art of expressing our ideas by visible signs had its 
origin in picture-writing. Such writing consisted of a few rough pictures. 
Its purpose was to communicate ideas as clearly and as accurately as 
possibly by an appeal to the eye. „Starting from this primitive picture¬ 
writing, human development runs out in two different directions. In 
the first place, men began to take more and more interest in the 
reproduction of form. The details of the original objects began to 
receive more attention, and to be more accurately and fully incorporated 
into the reproductions. This refinement of form very soon began to 
go beyond the limits necessary for the communication of ideas, and an 
art developed whose chief interest is the higher and higher development 
of form. This art which deals with form appeared at first as drawing, 
later as sculpture and painting . . . 

„The second line of development, which begins with primitive 
picture-writing is the line of development of writing proper.” 

Natural language 

By way of summarizing the above facts, we may say that long ' 
before the child begins to speak in the conventional sense, he produces 
expressive cries accompanied by the movements of nearly every muscle 
in his body denoting feelings and emotions of pain, pleasure, rage, fear, 
wonder and disgust. The expressive cry, the facial expression, and 
characteristic bodily movements is known as the NATURAL LANGUAGE. 

As the child grows older he also knows before he can speak how 
he can make himself understood by means of all kinds of bodily 
movements known as GESTURE LANGUAGE. Gesture, the language of 
nature, like the expression of the face, is a universal language and understood 


71 


in every part of the globe. Thus out of the first cries, exclamations 
and gestures always accompanied by the action of nearly every muscle 
in the^ body, speech slowly develops. It is well to note that the whole 
vocal life of infancy is primarily an expression of feeling; while the 
gesture may be the expression of thoughts and feelings. The important 
step in the development of speech is the acquirement of the ability to 
use the movements of the vocal cords for purposes other than those 
of the expression of feeling. 

Conventional language 

The human individual is a social being. He digests and assimilates 
the material furnished by the senses, and then communicates it by means 
of certain sounds called „WORDS” or „ORAL SPEECH”; or by visible 
symbols or written speech. The art of expressing our thoughts and feelings 
by means of spoken or written WORDS is known as CONVENTIONAL 
LANGUAGE. We must bear in mind that words are symbols and help 
to convey ideas because we have learned to associate the words with 
the ideas. Thus words like chair, air, flower, bee, squirrel, stone, girl, 
cat, dog, fear, wonder, pleasure, pink, blue etc., when heard or seen 
create mental pictures, images, or ideas of the various objects or facts; 
and they have meanings just because they call up the experiences, images 
or ideas of the various objects, persons or things. 

Writing proper, as well as spoken language, is a means of expression 
by symbols; while pictorial art is an attempt actually to reproduce the 
object which is the prototype of the subjective image. Photography is 
the most exact means of pictorial reproduction. Writing proper and 
pictorial writing are permanent forms; speech may be made permanent 
in a way by being put in the medium of writing or by being reproduced 
in the phonograph. Facial expression can be preserved by pictorial 
representations, including photographs. 

Attempts have been made by Bell, Darwin, Duchenne, Lavater, Mosso 
and a few others to give photographs and pictorial representations of 
facial expression. But pictorial representations are not exact enough to 
be suitable for psychological study and the photographs given are not 
complete. We have endeavored *to supply this need by giving photo¬ 
graphic illustrations of feelings and emotions. However, before we 
do this, we must have a very clear notion of what words, which represent 
thoughts, really are. 

In order to get a clear image of what is meant by thoughts, 
feelings and emotions, etc., it may be profitable first to give some 


known facts in regard to the body of an adult as suplied by Huxley. 
These at the same time may serve as a sample of „words”, or other 
symbols such as numbers etc., which are used to communicate to us 
some cold facts. The following outline is a specimen of „words” 
expressing thoughts or ideas with a minimum feeling. 


Words expressing thoughts with a minimum of feeling 

„The weight of the body of a full-grown man may be taken at 
70 kilogrammes (154 lbs). 

1. General Statistics 

Such a body would be made up of 


Muscles and tendons 

Skeleton. 

Skin. 

Fat. 

Brain. 

Thoracic viscera . . 
Abdominal viscera 
Blood*. 


Percent 

. 41 
. 16 
. 7 

. 18 
. 2 
. 2 
. 7 

._7 

100 


Or of 

Water.58 

Solid matters.42 


Lbs. 

63 

25 

10.7 

28 

3 

3 

10.7 

10.7 

154 

89 

65 


The solids would consist of the elements oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, 
nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur, silicon, chlorine, iodine, fluorine, potassium, 
sodium, calcium, lithium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper, and lead, 
and may be arranged under the heads of 

Proteids Carbohydrates Fats Minerals 

Such a body would lose in 24 hours—of water, about 2780 grammes 
(6 lbs. or 6 pints); of other matters, about 940 grammes (2 lbs.), which 
would contain about 270—300 grammes ( 3 / 4 oz.) of nitrogen and 
30 grammes (about 1 oz.) of mineral matters (inorganic salts). 

It could do about 150000 kilogranime-metres (540 foot tons**) of 
work, and gives off as much heat (2300 kilogramme degree unites) as 
would be able to do five times as much work again, say 850000 
kilogramme-metres (or about 3100 foot tons). The total energy expended 


*) The total quantity of blood in the body is calculated at about 1/13 to 1/14 of the body weight. 

**) A foot ton is the equivalent of the work required to lift one ton one foot high. 













73 


by the body as heat and work (calculated entirely as work) is thus 
about 1000000 kilogramme-metres (3640 foot tons) of which one-sixth 
is expended as work and five-sixths as heat. 

The loss of substance would occur through various organs and to 
the respective amounts shown in the table on p. 293. 

The gains and losses of this body would be about as follows: 

Creditor: Solid dry food . . 600 grammes ( 1 V 4 lbs.) 

0x ygen. 640 „ (l 1 /* „ ) 

Water .... . 2500 „ (5 1 /, „ ) 

3740 grammes ( 8 1 /* lbs.) 

Debtor: Water. 2800 grammes ( 6^4 lbs.) 

. Other matters . 940 „ (2 „ ) 

3740 grammes (8 7 4 lbs.) 

Circulation 

„In such a body the heart would beat about 72 times in a minute 
and probably drive out at each stroke from each ventricle about 100 
to 125 grammes (5 to 6 cubic inches or 3 Vo ounces) of blood. 

„The blood would probably move in the great arteries at the rate 
of about 12 inches (300 millimetres) in a second; in the capillaries 
at the rate of 1—2 inches (25—50 millimetres) in a minute. The 
time taken up in performing the complete circuit would probably be 
about 30 seconds. 

„The left ventricle would probably establish a blood pressure in 
the aorta equal to the pressure (per square inch) of a column of blood 
about 7 or 8 feet (2 metres) in height; or of a column of mercury 
6 —7 inches (150 millimetres) in height. 

„Sending out 100 grammes of blood at each stroke against this 
pressure, the left ventricle does 100 x 2000 grammes-millimetres or 
200 gramme-metres of work at each stroke: in 24 hours, at 72 strokes 
per minute, the total work done is about 20000 kilogramme-metres. 
The work of the right ventricle is about one quarter of that done by 
the left, since it works against a smaller blood-pressure in the 
pulmonary artery. The total work of both ventricles is therefore about 
25000 kilogramme metres, or 85 foot-tons. 

Respiration 

„Such a body would breathe about 17 times a minute. 

„The lungs would contain of residual air about 1500 c. c. (100 cubic 




74 


inches), of supplemental or reserve air about 1500 c. c. (100 cubic inches), 
of tidal air 500 c. c. (20 to 30 cubic inches), and of complemental air 
500 c. c. (100 cubic inches). 

„The vital capacity of the chest — that is, the greatest quantity 
of air which could be inspired or expired — would be about 3500 c. c. 
(230 cubic inches) .. 

The above statements have been quoted at length because in them 
Huxley clearly shows us that the human body is a mass of matter 
which is studied by the physiologist and is measured and analyzed by 
the two sciences, physics and chemistry. The quotation is also a very 
good example of „words” used by a scientist to express his thoughts 
or ideas. The method used was first, observation of facts which by 
means of the sense organs became psychical facts, and .then 
again by means of the motor organs, they become physical facts, such 
as words which make the ideas or thoughts permanent. 

Words expressing thoughts, feelings and emotions 

The following quotations from William Blake, Shakespeare and Goethe 
tell their own story. Here we find words used to express thoughts, 
feelings or emotions for the purpose of arousing them in the reader. 
We must remember that language is a social inheritance, and that in 
back of all our thoughts and feelings there is some social force. 
Thus we see that language implies the existence of others to whom 
we either communicate our thoughts and feelings or have others 
communicate them to us. 

The photographs 47—58 give the representation of the facial 
expression of one individual, A. F., while reciting the following lines 
silently and at the same time imaging the whole situation, for as 
we have seen „words“ are merely symbols and represent thoughts, 
feelings and emotions. 

A Cradle Song 
Sleep, sleep, beauty bright, 

Dreaming in the joys of night; 

Sleep, sleep; in thy sleep 
Little sorrows sit and weep. 

Sweet babe, in thy face 
Soft desires I can trace, 

Secret joys and secret smiles; 

Little pretty infant wiles. 


Plate IX 






















75 


As thy softest limbs I feel. 

Smiles as of the morning steal 
O’er thy cheek, and o’er thy breast 
Where thy little heart doth rest. 

Oh the cunning wiles that creep 
In thy little heart asleep. 

When thy little heart doth wake. 

Then the dreadful light shall break. 

Infant Joy 

,1 have no name; 

I am but two days old.’ 

What shall I call thee? 

,1 happy am; 

Joy is my name.’ 

Sweet joy befall thee! 

Pretty joy! 

Sweet joy, but two days old; 

Sweet joy I call thee; 

Thou dost smile: 

I sing the while, 

Sweet joy befall thee! Wm. Blake. 

The poems written by William Blake and other such poems written 
on infants and children plainly prove to us that literary artists also 
are as observing as scientists, but that instead of recording plain cold 
facts they give vent to their feelings which were induced by the sense 
experience. We have shown that it is impossible to have thoughts without 
corressponding feelings. We may register cold facts but the emotions 
and feelings were merely left unexpressed. Mosso, as we have mentioned 
in the first chapter, shows us the feeling state as well as the purely 
intellectual state. 

In quoting the following poem by Goethe, we may mention that 
he gave some valuable discoveries to the scientific field as well as his 
well known contributions to the artistic world. 

Margaret (alone at her spinning-wheel) 

My peace is fled, 

My heart is sore; 

I shall find it never, 

Ah! Nevermore. 


76 


Save him I have 
For me ’tis the grave; 
The sweet world all 
Is turned to gall 

My weary head 
Is sore distraught, 

And my poor wits 
With frenzy fraught. 

My peace is fled, 

My heart is sore; 

I shall find it never, 

Ah! Nevermore. 

Him only I watch for 
The window anear; 

Him only I look for 
When forth I fare. * 

His lofty gait, 

His lordly guise, 

The smile of his lips, 
The might of his eyes. 

The charmed flow 
Of speech that is his, 
The clasp of his hand, 
And ah! his kiss! 

My peace is fled, 

My heart is sore: 

1 shall find it never, 

Ah! Nevermore. 

My bosom yearns 
For him, for him, 

Ah! could I clasp him 
And cling to him. 

And kiss him, as fain 
I would, then I, 

Faint with his kisses, 
Should swoon and die! 


Plate X 




































































' 
























































































•• 


t . * • 












-§■ 

■a .'I 











77 


The photographs 59—70 give a representation of the expression of 
the feelings and emotions as A. F., audibly recited the words of the 
above poem. She tried to place herself in the same situation. The 
italics give the word uttered when the camera snapped the expression 
of the emotion. 

As there was no plan to suppress any emotions, but to recite the 
words and allow the nervous system to have its own way, we were 
surprised to find that instead of having all the photographs represent 
some forlorn and despondent expression as the situation would imply, 
the thoughts or ideas which were associated with the pleasant emotions 
were revived and brought up into the focal region, and we find expressions 
of feelings, beginning with sadness gradually developing into all the 
shades of pleasures such as enthusiasm, rapture, bliss, ecstacy, etc. 
This all plainly proves that „emotional feelings are revivable according 
to the laws of revival of mental states." 

The photographs 71 — 76 were posed while imaging the following 
situations. , 

Garden Scene in Faust 

Margaret on Faust’s Arm. 


Photographs No. 71 
„ 72 
,, 73 

, » 74 


75 


„I feel it, you but spare my ignorance, 

„To shame me, sir, you stoop thus low." 

„Only one little moment think of me! 

To think of you 1 shall have many an hour. 

„But many weary hours, in sooth, were also mine. 
At night its little cradle stood 
Close to my bed; so was I wide awake 
If it but stirred; . . ." 

„Did you not see it? I cast down my eyes. 


„ „ 76 „Sweet love!" (Words uttered by Faust) 

The photographs 77—82 represent the expression of the emotions 
aroused by reciting the following lines taken from 


King Lear (Act I Sc. I) 
„Let it be so; thy truth then be thy dower. 
For, by the sacred radiance of the sun, 

The mysteries of Hecate, and the Night; 

By all the operation of the orbs 
From whom we do exist and cease to be; 
Here I disclaim all my paternal care, 
Propinquity and property of blood; 


78 


And as a stranger to my heart and me 

Hold thee from this for ever. The barbarous Scythian, 

Or he that makes his generation messes 
To gorge his appetite, shall to my bosom 
Be as well neighbor’d, pitied and relieved, 

As thou my sometime daughter.” 

The following lines were recited audibly and the facial expression 
is represented in photographs 83—89. 

Romeo and Juliet (Act II Sc. 11) 

Juliette: „Oh Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo? 

Deny thy father and refuse thy name; 

Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love, 

And I’ll no longer be a Capulet. 


„Tis but thy name that is my enemy; 

Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. 

What’s Montague? it is nor hand, nor foot, 

Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part 
Belonging to a man. 0, be some other name! 

What’s in a name? that which we call a rose 
By any.other name would smell as sweet; 

So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call’d, 

Retain that dear perfection which he owes 
Without that title. Romeo, doff thy name, 

And for thy name, which is no part of thee 
Take all myself. 

Photographs No. 95 and No. 96 were snapped while reciting the 
following lines from the same scene. 

Juliette: What man art thou, that thus bescreen’d in night, 

So stumblest on my counsel? 

Juliette: How earnest thou hither, tell me, and wherefore? 

Photographs No. 97—118 give the facial expression while reciting 
Juliet’s Potion scene, Act IV Scene IV. 

Juliette: Farewell! God knows when we shall meet again. 

I have a faint cold fear thrills through my veins, 

That almost freezes up the heat of life; 

I’ll call them back again to comfort me, 



Plate XI 


















Plate XII 

No. 10(3 No. 105 No. 104 No. 103 No 102 No. 101 















































































































































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Plate XIV 



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Plate XVI 





































































79 


Nurse! —What should she do here? 

My dismal scene I needs must act alone. 

Come, vial. 

What if this mixture do not work at all? 

Shall I be married then tomorrow morning? 
No, no: this shall forbid it. Lie thou there. 
What if it be a poison, which the friar 
Subtly hath minister’d to leave me dead, 

Lest in this marriage he should be dishonour’d, 
Because he married me before to Romeo? 

I fear it is: and yet, methinks, it should not, 
For he hath been tried a holy man. 

How if, when I am laid into the tomb, 

I wake before the time that Romeo 

Come to redeem me? there’s a fearful point. 

Shall I not then be stifled in the vault, 

To whose foul mouth no healthsome air breathes in. 
And there die strangled ere my Romeo comes? 
Or, if I live, is it not very like, 

The horrible conceit of death and night, 
Together with the terror of the place, 


And, in this rage, with some great kinsman’s bone, 

As with a club, dash out my desperate brains? 

0, look! methinks I see my cousin’s ghost 
Seeking out Romeo, that did spit his body 
Upon a rapier’s point: stay, Tybalt, stay! 

Romeo, I come! this do I drink to thee. 

Photographs No. 119—184 give us the representation of the expression 
of feelings which were aroused by the imagination. Many of these 
photographs are discussed in Chapter VI. It is interesting to note an 
expansion which seems to go with pleasurable feelings, and a contraction 
which accompany unpleasant feelings. 

Photographs No. 121 Posed for thought of a loved one 
122 

V „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 

„ 123 „ „ „ „ beautiful scenery 

„ 124 „ „ „ „ a view of the sun 

setting such as is seen in the North Sea while inhaling and exhaling 
the exhilirating atmosphere. 



In summarizing, we may state that we have given (1) specimens 
of cold facts expressed by means of „words” (conventional language); 
(2) examples of words expressing thoughts, feelings, and emotions 
(conventional language); (3) photographs representing facial expression 
of the feelings and emotions including gestures (natural language) wich 
were aroused by imaging emotional situations or reciting „words” ex¬ 
pressing thoughts, feelings and emotions. 

We may conclude this chapter by stating that the external expression 
of the emotions, and what is known as „Natural Language” are one and 
the same. The philologists may name it „Natural Language”; while the 
psychologist sees the representation of the expression of the feelings 
or emotions; which the physiologist would reduce to neuromuscular 
action; and which the physicist would interpret in terms of vibration 
or view it in the form of waves. 





Plate XVII 






















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Plate XVIll 


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Plate XIX 



No. 255 No. 255 No. 254 No. 253 No. 252 No. 251 



























































































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Chapter V 

Expression of consciousness 

(Attention and mind set) 

Photographs 185—244 and 251—256 give us the representation of 
the expression of different degrees of the various feelings, beginning each 
series with a pose to represent merely attention. The main idea was to 
have all the „attentions“ look alike, and show how each feeling may 
begin from the same starting point, and gradually work up to the higher 
degrees, known as emotion. The following instructions were given for 
posing: Look at a given point, then quickly turn the head toward the 
camera for „attention”, and quickly express the different degrees of 
suspicion. A. F. had all this in mind when she began to pose. That is, 
she knew what she was to do from the beginning (the given point) to 
the end of the first series. The same general directions were given for 
the posing of the second series: Look at a stated point, look quickly in 
the camera, and immediately follow a series of laughing expressions. The 
rest of the series were posed for in the same way. We should like to 
call special attention to the fact, that when A. F. posed for attention, 
the emphasis was laid on quickly turning the head from a given point 
to the camera, so as to receive the same stimulus, and thus get a good 
and uniform attention. 

Upon receiving the photographs, we were astonished to see that 
each „attention” portrayed the preconceived emotion which A. F. had 
intended to express in the series following this initial ^attention”, but 
not in the incipient attention itself. 

After being satisfied that each photograph of „ attention” portrayed 
the emotion which A. F. had in mind to express immediately after the 
^attention”, we perceived the scientific value of the fact. The photo¬ 
graphs not only showed an attitude of mind, but illustrated the mind 
set concretely. 

Not to rely entirely upon our own judgments, we thought we would 
ask the opinions of others, and see if they could detect in the photo¬ 
graphs the moods that we preceived in them. Hence, we made a little 

Feelings and Emotions. 7 


82 


experiment. We showed 100 reliable persons the 4 photographs, eacl 
bearing a number, and handed them slips of paper with the names o 
beginning of amusement, beginning of surprise, beginning of suspicion 
beginning of sadness, written upon it. These persons were asked t( 
give their judgment of the expression of each of the four photograph! 
and to write them down on slips of paper, giving each judgments the 
number corresponding to that of the photograph judged. 2 

We chose to work with only 4 photographs out of the series, be¬ 
cause we considered the moods were so subtle, that we did not wist 
to confuse the subjects by a multiplicity of photographs. And, moreover 
the main problem was to find how many would agree with our judgment 
The following table gives the result of the judgments of these 100 persons 

Correct Errors 

No. 1 amusement .... 100 0 

„ 2 surprise.97 3 

„ 3 suspicion .... 94 6 

„ 4 sadness.91 9 

Here we see a remarkable condition; that is, 100% agree among 
themselves and with the writer in their judgment of the photograph 
No. 1 which is amusement. Only 3% of errors in photograph No. 2 
(surprise). 6% of errors each in photographs No. 3 and No. 4 is due 
perhaps to the following cause. No. 3 was the beginning of a series ol 
suspicion, while No. 4 was the beginning of a series of fear leading to 
distraction. The bodily expression of fear, and the mental expression 
of suspicion is, according to Charles Bell, the same. It is also well to 
note that fear is a synonym of suspicion. Hence, even here the dis¬ 
agreement is not so great as it would seem. Therefore, as there was 
such a close agreement, we may safely say that photographs No. 1, 2, 
3, 4, represent the beginnings of amusement, surprise, suspicion and 
sadness respectively. This experiment seems to prove that „fear” or 
suspicion”, even when it is only in the fringe of consciousness, will 
modify our actions and mental states, a fact which verifies Thorndike’s 
law of the mind’s set. He says: „Three special forms of the influence 
of the general set of the mind, of the mental context in which the per¬ 
cept is felt, are so important as to deserve formulation as special laws. 
The first and most general is the Law of Relativity, that any stimulus 
will be felt, not as it would be if by itself alone, but in comparison 
with sensations and percepts which accompany or precede it...” 

The experiment also throws light on James’ statement relative to a 
certain blindness in human beings. He says: „Our judgments concerning 
the worth of things, big or little, depend on the feelings the things arouse 





1 


2 



3 


4 










Plate XXI 



No. 268 No. 267 No. 266 No. 265 No. 264 No. 263 






































I 



83 


in us. Where we judge a thing to be precious in consequence of the 
idea we frame of it, this is only because the idea is itself associated 
already with a feeling. If we were radically feelingless, and if ideas 
were the only things our mind could entertain, we should lose all our 
likes and dislikes at a stroke, and be unable to point to any one situa¬ 
tion or experience in life more valuable or significant than any other. 

Now the blindness in human beings is the blindness with which 
we all are afflicted in regard to the feelings of creatures and people 
different from ourselves. 


We are practical beings, each of us with limited functions and duties 
to perform. Each is bound to feel intensely the importance of his own 
duties and the significance of the situations that call these forth. But 
this feeling is in each of us a vital secret, for sympathy with which 
we vainly look to others. The others are too much absorbed in their 
own vital secrets to take an interest in ours. Hence the stupidity and 
injustice of our opinions, so far as they deal with the significance of 
alien lives. Hence the falsity of our judgments, so far as they presume 
to decide in an absolute way on the value of other person’s conditions 
or ideals.” (Talks to Teachers on Psychology). 

In order to see the expression of attention without a preconceived 
idea or plan, A. F. posed for another series as in photographs 257—268. 
Here the first row shows an attention which is merely a response to a 
stimulus without any definite ideas or feelings. That is, A. F. merely 
looked at a stated point and turned quickly to look in the camera so 
as to get a stimulus of optical attention. The same directions were given 
in the following row with the addition that each pose was accompanied 
with emotion producing ideas such as 

Photograph 263 thoughts of feelings of pleasure (laughter) 

„ 264 „ „ „ „ surprise 

„ 265 „ , „ „ suspicion 

„ 266 „ , „ fear 

» 267 „ „ „ „ sadness 

w 268 „ „ „ „ religious experiences 

The moods expressed are very subtle. However, there is some notice¬ 
able difference between the first and second rows. The former is more 
uniform, and the latter photographs seem more thoughtful. Then again 
photographs 257—262 show less feeling than photographs 263—268 
which are accompanied with thoughts or ideas of feelings. 

In order to throw more light on the various aspects of conscious¬ 
ness experienced while just „looking” as shown in photograph 257, we 
shall introduce the introspection of the poser: 


7 * 


84 


Introspection 

As the plan for posing was to turn the head and eyes from a stated 
point toward the camera, in order to get a stimulus for ^optical atten¬ 
tion”, I automatically turned my head, adjusted my eyes, and looked in 
the camera. 

I inhibited all movements, including respiratory movements and ideas. 
I experienced a slight strain in being obliged to keep myself so quiet 
and in inhibiting respiration. 

I possessed a feeling of awareness that 1 was sitting before the 
camera, in order to be photographed, and that this was not my first 
experience. I had a feeling of awareness that I was inhibiting my breathing 
movements, my ideas, and of a strain around my eyes. I possessed a 
feeling of awareness that I was „looking” and not ^thinking”. I was 
also aware, in the fringe of consciousness, of the two clicks of the camera, 
which notified me of the beginning and end of each exposure. I never 
gave the „ expression of countenance” any thought whatever, but ex¬ 
perienced a strong feeling of Just looking”, due, perhaps, to the decided 
eye strain which I experienced, and the inhibition of respiratory move¬ 
ments and all ideas, with the exception of the ideas pertaining to Just 
looking”. 

The above introspection shows us the value of „conventional language” 
(action or behavior of small muscles adjusting the vocal cords in speech, 
or the muscles of the hand employed in recording speech known as 
writing); and how it may be used to supplement „natural language” 
(action or behavior of the muscles of expression in the face and that 
of the whole body) in explaining mental and bodily states. The strain 
and auditory sense-perceptions, feeling of awareness, ideas, memories 
and inhibiting factors which were experienced in the „fringe of cons¬ 
ciousness”, and which were brought out in the introspection, merely 
confirm various facts pertaining to attention, and discussed by various 
psychologists. It is interesting to note that with this additional intro¬ 
spective evidence, we are shown that consciousness functions as a unit 
and that we sense, feel, think, will and attend, all at the same time, 
and as emphasized at the end of our first chapter. We also defined the 
various degrees and aspects of consciousness as well as attention. 

In order to gather up the various threads of thought, we may 
recapitulate and say that by ^Consciousness”, we mean the „awareness” 
of experiencing mental or psychical states known as sensations, perceptions, 
images, ideas, thoughts, feelings, emotions, and the like. 

Sensation is the identification in consciousness of the selective action 
of the sense organs. Thus when light rays strike the retina of the eye, 


85 


and impulses sent through the optic nerve impress the occipital lobe 
in the brain, we see. When air vibrations strike the ear drum, and 
impulses sent through the auditory nerve impress the auditory centre 
in the brain, we hear. When muscles contract, and send impulses by 
means of sensory nerves to a certain region of the brain, we feel or 
are aware of bodily movements. In the same manner, the various 
receptors send messages by means of nerve fibres to various centres 
in the brain, and we get awareness of sensations of taste, smell, touch, 
pain, thirst, hunger, and the like. 

We must constantly bear in mind that the „cortex of the brain is 
highly specialized, and different regions represent special functions. In 
it are represented ,the numerous manifestations associated with cons¬ 
ciousness;’ in it memories are stored up; and „in it occur the last and 
highest bodily processes concerned with sensations received from without, 
and with the setting free of impulses which are projected to lower centres 
and to the outside world.’ A centre is an aggregation of nerve-cells 
and fibres, which aggregation represents physiologically some action 
(Mills). Physiological and Pathological researches and surgical operations 
have proved that the surface of the brain may be mapped out into 
series of definite centres, each one of which is intimately connected with 
some well-defined function. A group of centres is known as a zone, 
an area, or a region. As Hughlings Jackson says, the study of centres 
is an investigation into the anatomical ^substrata” of visual, motor, 
tactile, and other ideas; of „the parts which represent impressions of 
sight, of touch, of movement, and other functions” (Mills). Certain 
cortical centres are known as motor centres. Stimulation of these centres 
causes movement. Destruction of these centres renders movement 
impossible. The centres are associated with contraction of muscular 
groups producing special movements not with the contraction of individual 
muscles. They represent movements rather than muscles. These centres 
are found particularly around the fissure of Rolando and on the mesial 
surface of the hemisphere, and they are associated with movements of 
the extremities of the opposite side of the body, and movements of the 
face, mouth, and tongue ... On the convexity of the hemisphere the 
highest centre is the leg area. Below this, in the order named, are the 
centres for the arm face, lips, tongue, larynx, and pharynx. On the 
mesial surface from before backward are areas for the head, shoulder, 
trunk, hip, knee, leg, and foot. The centres for head and eye movements 
are in front of the eye centre. In a large motor area there are certain 
smaller areas. For instance, the area for the lower extremity contains 
separate centres representing movements of the hip, knee, leg, foot, and toes. 


86 


The arm centre contains centres for movements of the shoulder, 
arm, wrist, thumb, and fingers. The face centre contains centres for 
movements of the upper face, the lower face, the lips, and tongue. The 
somaesthetic area or the area of general sensation is not certainly marked 
out. Those who believe that the motor area is both front and back of 
the Rolandic fissure maintain that the area of general sensation largely 
corresponds to the motor area, but is of greater extent as it enters into 
the limbic lobe. Mills places it back of the Fissure of Rolando in the 
convexity and also on the mesial surface of the hemisphere.” (Gray’s 
Anatomy.) This is not the place, nor can space be given, to describe 
these localities. 

To come back to our mental or psychical facts, it is also well to 
bear in mind that PERCEPTION implies that the object or fact is presented 
to the sense organs, is caused by a number of stimulations, and requires 
the co-operation of many brain processes. IMAGES and IDEAS are 
memories of past experiences, and are equally the result of brain changes. 
FEELING or EMOTION is the identification in conciousness of the action 
of the neuromuscular mechanism in characteristic patterns which are 
ingrained in the nervous system, such as indicate pleasure, pain, anger, 
fear, wonder, disgust, and the like. It is well to remember that we may 
have ideas or images of bodily movemens known as feelings or emotions 
as well as ideas of external facts, such as table, chair, person, dog, etc. 
The IDEA of laughter is so closely associated with the well known bodily 
expression of laughter, that if any individual thinks of this experience, 
the expressive movements follow reflexly. (See photographs 191—196). 
The same is true of all other emotional ideas, as may readily be seen 
in the facial expression represented in the various photographs. In fact 
it seems to us that an idea of fear, or an idea of anger, and the like 
is nothing else than the memories of bodily expressive movements asso¬ 
ciated with the memories or ideas of emotion producing objects, facts, 
or persons, as well as with the symbols (visual and auditory verbal 
memories), which they represent. 

In Chapter III, we discussed the Willing Consciousness, and stated 
that when this is experienced, ;the other two aspects of consciousness, 
thinking and feeling, are in the background. (See photographs 35—36). 
When the emotional consciousness is experienced, the thinking and will¬ 
ing aspects are in the background (See photographs 204—208). When 
we are thinking, the emotional and willing consciousness are in the 
fringe of consciousness, while the thinking aspect holds the focal field 
(See photographs 179, 246, 248). In other words, mental states are more 
or less prominent, and the emphasized or dominant mental state takes 


87 


the centre of the field of consciousness, while the others are in the 
margin. This universal characteristic that mental states may be more 
or less focal is known as ATTENTION. We shall now contrast attention 
with various phases of consciousness in order to get not only a clearer 
picture of our feeling or emotional consciousness, but also other aspects 
of our mental states. However, before doing so, it may be well to 
emphasize the fact, and say with Pillsbury that „attention is not a fa¬ 
culty; it is merely a name that has been given to the fact that there is 
selection, that the selected stimulus becomes more effective, more promi¬ 
nent in consciousness, and more likely to cause movements, and also at 
times it has been given to the conditions of these changes.” 


Attention likened to the visual consciousness 

Angell says „When we attempt a definition of attention we experience 
the same sort of difficulty which we met in defining consciousness, and 
for a similar reason. So long as we are conscious at all, attention in 
some degree is present. We therefore find it difficult to define it with¬ 
out employing the thing itself in the definition. Because of this fact, 
attention has been commonly referred to as a ^general, or universal, 
characteristic of consiousness,” or as a general attitude,’ especially as an 
attitude of expectancy. In default of a wholly satisfactory definition of 
attention, we may at least illustrate what we mean by the term. When 
we look at a printed page there is always some one portion of it, per¬ 
haps a word, which we see more clearly than we do the rest; and out 
beyond the margin of the page we are still conscious of objects which 
we see only in a very imperfect way. The field of consciousness is 
apparently like this visual field. There is always a central point of which 
we are momentarily more vividly conscious than anything else. Fading 
gradually away from this point into vaguer and vaguer consciousness, 
is a margin of objects, or ideas, of which we are aware in a sort of 
mental indirect vision. This fact that consciousness always has a focal 
point, which reveals the momentary activity of the mind, is what is meant 
by the fact of attention. Baldwin has suggested the accompanying 
diagrammatic presentation of the facts we are speaking of, in connection 
with certain others. (Figure 5.) The margin of mental processes, out¬ 
side the focal point of attention, constitutes what James calls the „fringe 
of consciousness.” Whether we are attending to objects in the world about 
us, or to ideas in our own minds, there is always such a fringe, partly 
made up of sensations, partly of ideas. No matter what we are espe- 


88 


dally attending to, we are never completely oblivious to all other sen¬ 
sory and ideational processes.” 

Fig. 5. Graphic representation of the field of consciousness. 
1. the unconscious (physiological); 2. the subconscious, 
by many psychologists not distinguished from 1; 
3. diffused, vague consciousness; 4. more active and 
distinct consciousness, often not distinguished from 
5. the focal point of attention. The several zones 
shade into one another and are by no means sharply 
separated, as the lines of the diagram unfortunately 
suggest. (After Baldwin.) 

Attention likened to the auditory consciousness 
We emphasized the fact that although conscious experiences are very 
complex, and although sensory currents are pouring into the brain simul¬ 
taneously from various sense organs, consciousness functions as a unit. 
We stated that consciousness differs in quality, which is the same as 
saying that we have a thinking, feeling, willing or emotional consciousness* 
as yell as a visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, muscular, hunger, 
thirst and the like consciousness. We mentioned the fact that ATTEN¬ 
TION is simply a name to signify the fact that mental states may be 
more or less prominent. We name the psychical state from the domi¬ 
nant element. Thus if the psycho-visual perceptive area in the brain 
is strongest, we see objects, facts or persons, and the related mental 
states are in the background. If the psycho-visual memory area in the 
brain is strongest, then we think in visual imagery, and other psychic 
related factors are in the „fringe” of consciousness. James gives the name 
of „psychic overtone” to the ^fringe” which accompanies the definite 
perceptions or ideas. He compares the attended or dominant psychic 
activity with their related facts to auditory experiences. Before quoting 
him, it must be remembered that musical instruments, including the 
human voice, give out tones which are commonly heard as simple, but 
are in reality complex, being composed of a number of tones-the fun¬ 
damental and overtones which blend or fuse in consciousness. The 
simultaneous association involved in the above experience is known as 
^fusion”. 

Just as the musician with a trained ear is capable of analyzing 
compound sounds which are heard as simple, so the trained psychologist 
is able to reduce or analyze complex mental experiences such as per¬ 
ceptions and ideas and reduce them to sensory experiences. The per¬ 
ception or idea of an object is not the product of one sense, but a fabric 
woven in brain patterns of material from all. The sense-perception or 



89 — 


idea of an object known as orange is formed from olfactory, gustatory, 
auditory, visual, tactile, muscular and temperature sensations. This fusion 
of sensations into a finished perceptional product should be kept in mind. 
The important fact in perceptional and ideational processes is the ten¬ 
dency to perceive or image objects or facts as definite wholes or units, 
although they are complex experiences, and may be reduced to various 
sonsory impressions. 

In regard to the fusion which takes place in perceptional and idea¬ 
tional experiences just discussed, James says that „every definite image 
in the mind is steeped and dyed in the free water that flows round it. 
With it goes the sense of its relations, near and romote, the dying echo 
of whence it came to us, the dawning sense.of whither it is to lead. 
The significance, the value, of the image is all in this halo or penumbra 
that surrounds and escorts it, —or rather that is fused into one with it 
and has become bone of its bone and flesh of its flesh; leaving it, it 
is true, an image of the same thing it was before, but making it an 
image of that thing newly taken and freshly understood. 

„Let us call the consciousness of this halo of relations around the 
image by the name of ,psychic overtone’ or ,fringe’.” That the image 
is the dominant element, and related facts are in the fringe of conscious¬ 
ness are facts pertaining to attention. 

,,Cerebral Conditions of the ,Fringe’-Nothing is easier than to symbolize 
these facts in terms of brain-action. Just as the echo of the whence, 
the sense of the starting point of our thought, is probably due to the 
dying excitement of processes but a moment since vividly aroused; so 
the sense of the whither, the foretaste of the terminus, must be due to 
the waxing excitement of tracts or processes whose psychical correlative 
will a moment hence be the vividly present feature of our thought. Re¬ 
presented by a curve, the neurosis underlying consciousness must at any 
moment be like this: 

Fig. 6 



„Let the horizontal in Fig. 6 be the line of time, and let the three 
curves beginning at a, b, and c respectively stand for the neural pro- 




90 


cesses correlated with the thoughts of those three letters. Each process 
■occupies a certain time during which its intensity waxes, culminates, 
and wanes. The process for a has not yet died out, the process for c 
has already begun, when that for b is culminating. At the time-instant 
represented by the vertical line all three processes are present, in the 
intensities shown by the curve. Those before c’s apex were more intense 
a moment ago; those after it will be more intense a moment hence. If 
I recite a, b, c, then, at the moment of uttering b, neither a nor c is out 
of my consciousness altogether, but both, after their respective fashions, 
,mix their dim lights’ with the stronger b, because their processes are 
both awake in some degree. 

„It is just like ,overtones’ in music: they are not separately heard 
by the ear; they blend with the fundamental note, and suffuse it, and 
alter it; and even so do the waxing and waning brain-processes at every 
moment blend with and suffuse and alter the psychic effect of the 
processes which are at their culminating point.” 

In the previous chapters, we emphasized the facts that the more 
we know, the more we can read into things. In other words, we may 
know a great deal about a subject, or we may be slightly acquainted 
with it. James states that knowledge about a thing is knowledge of 
its relations, and is reducible almost entirely to the absence or presence 
of psychic fringes or overtones. He adds „that thought may be equally 
rational in any sort of terms. In all our voluntary thinking there is 
some topic or subject about which all the members of the thought 
revolve. Relation to this topic or interest is constantly felt in the fringe, 
and particularly the relation of harmony and discord, of furtherance or 
hindrance of the topic. Any thought the quality of whose fringe lets 
us feel ourselves ,all right’ may be considered a thought that furthers 
the topic. Provided we only feel its object to have a place in the scheme 
of relations in which the topic also lies, that is sufficient to make of 
it a relevant and appropriate portion of our train of ideas. 

„Now we may think about our topic mainly in words, or we may 
think about it mainly in visual or other images, but this need make no 
difference as regards the furtherance of our knowledge of the topic. If 
we only feel in the terms, whatever they be, a fringe of affinity with 
each other and with the topic, and if we are conscious of approaching 
a conclusion, we feel that our thought is rational and right. The words 
in every language have contracted by long association fringes of mutual 
repugnance or affinity with each other and with the conclusion, which 
run exactly parallel with like fringes in the visual, tactile, and other 
ideas. The most important element of these fringes is, I repeat, the 


91 


mere feeling of harmony or discord, of a right or wrong direction in 
the thought. 

„If we know English and French and begin a sentence in French, 
all the later words that come are French; we hardly ever drop into 
English. And this affinity of the French words for each other is not 
something merely operating mechanically as a brain-law, it is something 
we feel at the time. Our understanding of a French sentence heard 
never falls to so low an ebb that we are not aware that the words 
linguistically belong together. Our attention can hardly so wander that 
if an English word be suddenly introduced we shall not start at the 
change. Such a vague sense as this of words belonging together is 
the very minimum of fringe that can accompany them, if ,thought’ at 
all. Usually the vague perception that all the words we hear belong to 
the same language and to the same special vocabulary in that language, 
and that the grammatical sequence is familiar, is practically equivalent 
to an admission that what we hear is sense. But if an usual foreign 
word be introduced, if the grammar trip, or if a term from an incongruous 
vocabulary suddenly appear, such as ,rat-trap’ or ,plumber’s bill’ in a 
philosophical discourse, the sentence detonates as it were, we receive a 
shock from the incongruity, and the drowsy assent is gone. The feeling 
of rationality in these cases seems rather a negative than a positive 
thing, being the mere absence of shock, or sense of discord, between 
the terms of thought. 

„Conversely, if words do belong to the same vocabularly, and if 
the grammatical structure is correct, sentences with absolutely no meaning 
may be uttered in good faith and pass unchallenged.” This brings us 
back to „the influence of the law of the Mind’s Set” mentioned in the 
beginning of this chapter. Thus Thorndike states „what is commonly 
known as perception is a mixture of perception, illusion and hallucination. 
Thus in reading, some of the words which we feel ourselves to see are 
not seen at all and others are seen as quite different from their actual 
printed forms. There are misspellings in almost every book, but they 
pass unnoticed, unseen by the mental eye. Parts of words, even whole 
words, are often not present as sensory stimuli at all, the mind making 
them up out of whole cloth. So also in listening to spoken language 
we hear words which the ear does not hear at all.” 

Attention and emotional and volitional consciousness 

What we have said thus far in regard to the thinking process, the 
reciting of the letters a , 5, c, and knowledge and topic of thought in 


92 


regard to the focal and marginal activities in consciousness, factors of 
attention or mind set, may be applied to the volitional and emotional 
consciousness. Substituting the expressive emotional muscular movements 
in place of the laryngeal muscular movements while reciting a, &, c , we 
have an emotional consciousness. In fact the emotions may be so 
intense that they may crowd out the images used in thinking and 
willing, and drive them to the very outskirts. Instead of the thoughts 
of a, b, c, we may substitute the thoughts of the emotions, and the 
emotional ideas stimulate the centres of emotional expression found in 
the thalamus and medulla oblongata (Holmes and Head, Tilney and 
Riley, etc.), and the various movements fuse in consciousness. This 
may be seen in the photographs discussed in this chapter. In 1, 2, 3, 
4, the preconceived emotion fuses in consciousness with other mental 
experiences. In (1) A. F. expected to pose for a series of laughter 
pictures, indicating pleasure, after posing for optical attention. It follows 
that there was what is called an expectancy, a factor in our attenfional 
attitudes, and the reverberation of the activity in the marginal region 
is drained into the expected channels. Thus the recency of similar 
experience added to expectancy and habit may not only be a possible 
source of illusory perception (James, Thorndike, Angel and others), but 
also of illusory feeling or emotion which accompanies perceptions or 
ideas. Extreme cases of illusory and hallucinatory feelings and emotions 
are found in pathological individuals who are possessed by morbid 
fears, suspicions and the like, as well as in certain ailments, in which 
the individual is elated and joyous without justification for his condition. 
In a lesser degree, there are the psychically blind normal individuals 
whom James discusses, as mentioned and quoted in the beginning of 
this chapter. 

If the thoughts of a, b, c, or the reciting of the letters a, b, c, as 
discussed above were chosen from a number of thoughts and acts which 
were battling for supremacy in order to hold the centre of the field of 
consciousness, then we have the volitional mind set or consciousness, 
and are experiencing what is known as voluntary attention, because we 
are holding the chosen topic of thought or act in the focal region, while 
we are keeping the intruders in their place or in the marginal region 
or in the fringe of consciousness. Then, again, if we have substituted 
the thoughts of a, b, c, in order to get rid of some irritating or obnoxious 
thought, or we recite a, b, c, in an attempt to drive away some feeling 
or emotion which has taken possession of us, we are exercising the 
volitional consciousness, and what is known as voluntary control. Thus 
it may readily be seen that to a certain extent we may be masters of 


93 


our external or internal environment, in other words, we may choose 
the thoughts we wish to think, we may exercise control over our acts 
and emotions, as well as over our appetites and desires. There are 
some individuals who have not developed the capacity for voluntary 
control voluntary attention. It has been well said that they belong less 
to themselves than to any object, person, thing or idea that happens to 
arouse their consciousness or strike their attention. These individuals 
are of the reflex or impulsive type. It is, however, to be remembered 
that there are countless movements going on within our body which we 
are largely powerless to control or prevent. Such are the movements 
of the heart and vascular system, the movements of the digestive tract, 
the work of the various glands in their process of secretion, and the like. 

In a previous chapter, we discussed in a rough and general way 
impulsive, reflex, instinctive, sensorimotor, ideomotor, voluntary, and 
emotional actions. We stated that reflex, instinctive and emotional 
movements are all primary performances, and that voluntary movements 
must be secondary. As sensations are experienced involuntarily, so 
movements are experienced involuntarily, and after these have left their 
impressions on the brain, we can frame ideaf of what these things are. 
Various sensations fusing in consciousness give us our perceptual units 
and ideas. The various movements in the body give us our ideas by 
the same process of ^fusion”, and afford us knowledge of various 
movements of the body. We have the neuromuscular action in attention 
fuse with the neuromuscular action in emotion, and we have interest as 
seen in photograph 174 (15), or horror in 160 (33) in the following 
chapter, as well as seen in the following photographs which we shall 
enumerate shortly. But let us not forget the fact that the neuromuscular 
pattern which includes the attentive and emotional attitudes, is closely 
linked with the sensational, perceptional or ideational experience. We 
do not merely attend to an object, fact or idea, but we are afraid, 
pleased, pained or annoyed with it. 

We have emphasized the fact that instincts are inherited reflexes, 
and that emotions are reflex reactions to emotion producing objects or 
ideas. Reflex or sensorimotor actions in response to loud sounds, 
intense lights, novel situations, moving objects, may not only induce 
every primary emotion, such as fear, wonder, and the like, but it also 
gives us what is known as involuntary attention or primary attention 
as named by Titchener. These primary emotions are linked to various 
ideas, and we may get any conceivable emotion as shown in the various 
photographs presented in this work. Sensuous ideas combined with 
expressive movements give us our sensuous feelings or emotions; aesthetic 


94 


ideas combined with expressive movements, give us our aesthetic feelings 
or emotions; intellectual ideas combined with expressive movements give 
us our intellectual emotions; religious ideas combined with expressive 
movements give us our religious feelings or emotions, moral ideas 
combined with expressive movements give us our moral feelings or 
emotions. 

When ideas or movements follow the law of least resistance, both 
running quite smoothly, then we experience nonvoluntary or spontaneous 
attention, which is generally accompanied with a pleasurable feeling of 
interest and the like. 

When, however, there is an internal conflict or an external disturbing 
influence or obstruction, then effort is required to hold the idea or 
action in the focal field, and we experience what is known as voluntary 
attention which is generally accompanied with the feeling of effort or 
that of determination. 

When one expressive emotional movement follows another in quick 
succession, they may fuse in consciousness, and we have mixed feelings 
as shown in photographs 118 (45) in the next chapter, as well as in 
386 and 385 presented in the last chapter. 

Expressive emotional movements may fuse in consciousness with 
the laryngeal muscles in song and speech, or with the muscles of the 
hands, or lips in the playing of any musical instruments. In fact, the 
expressive muscular movements fuse in consciousness with any muscular 
movements, such as dancing, running, walking, or any other muscular 
exercise. When the muscles become fatigued, we experience the sensation 
of fatigue, but if the fatigue is so great that it spreads not only 
throughout the neuromuscular mechanism in the body, but also influencing 
other cells, then the „feeling” of fatigue is emphasized and holds or 
takes possession of the focal field of consciousness, while the muscular 
sensations are ignored. The same seems to be true of strain and pain. 
If the strain or pain sensation is emphasized or possesses the focal 
field, then the feelings which accompany these sensations are in the 
fringe of consciousness. But if on the other hand, the feelings are 
emphasized and force themselves into the focal field, then the strain 
sensations are outside of the focal field. It is to be remembered that 
muscular exercise induces a pleasurable feeling when the individual is 
normal and rested. The muscular exercise of walking on a bright and 
exhilirating day arouses a very pleasurable feeling. During such an 
exercise every cell in the body is influenced through the respiratory, 
circulatory and lymphatic circulations. 

The above facts are introduced in order to show that just as the 



95 


eye is the organ of vision, the ear is the organ of hearing, the muscle 
is the organ of volition, so the muscles of expression ingrained in the 
nervous system are the organs of the feelings and emotions. 

Woodworth in his Psychology emphasizes the fact that no portion 
of the cortex, not even the sensory areas, is directly connected with 
any sense organ, and that the thalamus is an intermediate center for 
all the senses, except smell. He adds that the thalamus has something 
to do with feeling and emotion. 

Tilney and Riley state that ^clinical evidence seems to be insistent 
that the thalamus is a center for affective tone. Its irritation or destruction 
leads to changes in affective expressions and attitudes. The thalamus 
is a part which when diseased may lead to forced laughing and crying 
(Nothnagel, Strumpel, Monokow and Gowes). It is a primary center for 
mimic movements and emotional expression . . .” In fact, Tilney and 
Riley, in summing up evidence favoring the motor function of the 
thalamus, seem to think that all the movements attributed to the thalamus 
may be but parts of a composite expression of emotional reactions; 
and that it may include the whole emotional complex, such as fear, 
which includes not only the expression of fear, but also the instinctive 
reaction of flight or escape. They add that „it is doubtful, therefore, 
whether any of these movements are essentially motor functions of the 
thalamus; they probably represent the transmission of sensory syntheses 
taking place in the thalamus and serving as incentives of motor reactions 
controlled by neighboring motor organs.” 

It seems evident that we may look to the thalamus as the center 
for affective tone; and „to the medulla oblongata which in part controls 
the facial muscles through the motor nucleus of the facial nerve, which 
is the final common pathway for the musculature of expression, and 
the platysma myoids muscle.” 

For our purpose, all we need to know is that we have nerve centres 
in the brain which have to do with the regulation of the emotions; and 
that these centres may be influenced by sensory or ideational stimuli, 
as well as by the blood; and also that these lower emotive centres may be 
voluntarily controlled to a certain extent by the higher motor centres in 
the brain. 

We should also bear in mind that any sensory end organ or receptor 
or idea may influence the neuromuscular tension, the respiratory centre, 
the vasomotor centre, the cardiac centre, the centre which influences the 
muscles of expression, and any other motor centres which may also 
influence glands, as well as muscular movements. 

These facts that sensory stimuli influence the muscular tension are 


96 


mentioned by Judd in his discussion on feelings of organic type; and 
he introduces an experiment to demonstrate tension in explaining attention 
as the attitude of reacting to an impression. He reproduces a record 
made by Jastrow of involuntary hand movements made by the right and 
left hands of an observer who is thinking of a building situated in 
front of him. Every photograph in this book gives proof that the 
facial muscles are influenced by sensory or ideational experiences. 

We may say with James that „every impression which impinges 
on the incoming nerves produces some discharge down the outgoing 
ones, whether we be aware of it or not. Using sweeping terms and 
ignoring exceptions, we might say that every possible feeling produces 
a movement, and that the movement is a movement of the entire organism, 
and of each and all its parts. What happens patently when an explosion 
or a flash of lightning startles us, or when we are tickled, happens 
latently with every sensation whieh we receive. The only reason why 
we do not feel the startle or tickle in the case of insignificant sensations 
is partly its very small amount, partly our obtuseness. Professor Bain 
many years ago gave the name of the Law of Diffusion to this phenomenon 
of general discharge, and expressed it thus „According as an impression 
is accompanied with Feeling the aroused currents diffuse themselves 
over the brain, leading to a general agitation of the moving organs, as 
well as affecting the viscera/’ 

„There are probably no exceptions to the diffusion of every im¬ 
pression through the nerve-centres. The effect of a new wave through 
the centres may, however, often be to interfere with processes already 
going on there; and the outward consequence of such interference may 
be the checking of bodily activities in process of occurrence. When this 
happens it probably is like the siphoning of certain channels by currents 
flowing through others; as when, in walking, we suddenly stand still 
because a sound, sight, smell, or thought catches our attention. But 
there are cases of arrest of peripheral activity which depend, not on 
inhibition of centres, but on stimulation of centres which discharge 
outgoing currents of an inhibitory sort. Whenever we are startled, for 
example, our heart momentarily stops or slows its beating, and then 
palpitates with accelerated speed. The brief arrest is due to an outgoing 
current down the pneumogastric nerve. This nerve, when stimulated, 
stops or slows the heart beats, and this particular effect of startling 
fails to occur if the nerve be cut. 

„In general, however, the stimulating effects of a sense impression 
proponderate over the inhibiting effects, so that we may roughly say, 
as we began by saying, that the wave of discharge produces an activity 


97 


in all parts of the body. The task of tracing out all the effects of any 
one incoming sensation has not yet been performed by physiologists. 
Recent years have, begun to enlarge our information; and we have now 
experimental proof that the heart-beats, the arterial pressure, the respiration, 
the sweat-glands, the pupil, the bladder, bowels, and uterus, as well as 
the voluntary muscles, may have their tone and degree of contraction 
altered even by the most insignificant sensorial stimuli. In short, a 
process set up anywhere in the centres reverberates everywhere, and in 
some way or other affects the organism throughout, making its activities 
either greater or less.” 

Bain’s law of diffusion, Spencer’s Law of Nervous Discharge, or 
Darwin’s Direct Action of the Nervous System (his third principle) in 
which he states that certain actions, which we recognize as expressive 
of certain states of mind, are the direct result of the constitution of the 
nervous system, and have been from the first independent of the will, 
and, to a large extent, of habit, are identical phenomena. Thus Cannon’s 
recent findings, that the activity of the adrenal glands are greater during 
pain, fear, rage, and general excitement may be due to the direct actions 
of the nervous system, or what is known as the law of diffusion or 
the law of nervous discharge, do not disprove James theory of the 
emotions that they are primary movements, nor, as we shall see later 
on, does he disagree with James, in the fact that they are reflex efects 
of emotion producing objects or ideas. 

If the differential features are not contributed by the viscera, as 
stated by Cannon, they are certainly given by the facial muscles in the 
face, and as shown in the various photographs. Even the smooth muscles 
in the blood-vessels speak their language. In fact, the face is not merely 
an index of mental and bodily states known as emotions, but it also 
mirrors the thinking and willing activities of the mind, as well as the 
various normal and abnormal activities of the body. That certain diseases 
may be diagnosed by the story that is written in the face, is well known 
by any keen eyed physician. 

The wave of discharge through the nerve-centres causing an activity 
throughout the body need not be aroused by incoming sensory currents, 
or sense impressions, but may be aroused by an idea or thought. 
I. P. Powlow, a Russian physiologist, who has done some remarkable 
work pertaining to the digestive gland, states that „the experiences of 
daily life teach us at the outset, that the activity of the salivary glands 
often begins before the introduction of food into the mouth. With an 
empty stomach, the sight Of food, or even the thought of it, is sufficient 
to set the salivary glands into activity; indeed the well known expression, 

Feelings and Emotions. 8 


98 


,to make one’s mouth water/ is based upon this fact. Hence a psychic 
event, the observation and contemplation of food must be accepted as 
an undoubted excitant of nervous centre for the salivary glands.” 

Thus if a psychic event may be accepted as an excitant of the 
nervous centre for the salivary glands, it must also be accepted as an 
excitant for any other nervous centre, such as the centre for the lacrimal 
glands which secrete tears; or the centre for the adrenal glands which 
secrete adrenalin; or the various other motor centres, such as the one 
which influences the muscles of expression as seen in the lace, in the 
attitude of the whole body, or that of oral speech, and the like. As 
mentioned above Cannon’s experiments have shown us that the adrenal 
glands are influenced during pain, fear, rage, and general excitement; 
and physiologists emphasize the facts that not only sensory experiences 
influence the respiratory, vasomotor, cardiac centres, and the like, but 
they are also influenced by psychical states. We must not forget 
Sherrington’s important statement that „all parts of the nervous system 
are connected together, and no part of it is probably ever capable of 
reaction without affecting and being affected by various other parts, 
and it is a system certainly never at rest.” 

The upshot of the above discussion is to emphasize the fact that 
the body reacts to an object, fact, person, or idea, as a unit; and just 
as a thought may arouse another thought, and we find ourselves thinking, 
and as a thought may influence the salivary gland to secrete, and we 
are aware of the secretion, so one thought may arouse our feelings or 
emotions and we are aware of feeling these emotions. The thought of 
a joyous situation may be so intense that we may find ourselves 
gesticulating, jumping, walking in a characteristic manner, and even 
shedding tears, all due to the direct action of the nervous system. The 
tears in grief are also caused by the nervous discharge, but any individual 
may recognize tears of joy, or tears of sorrow by the characteristic 
expressive movements which are readily observed. A thought, an idea, 
or an emotion producing object or thought can only arouse an emotion 
if an organ of emotion is ingrained in the nervous system; and we 
have emphasized the fact that emotional organs may be lacking in an 
individual. 

Cannon in his discussion on the reflex nature of bodily responses 
in pain and the major emotions, states that „the most significant feature 
of these bodily reactions in pain and in the presence of emotion provoking 
objects is that they are of the nature of reflexes-they are not willed 
movements, indeed they are often distressingly beyond the control of 
the will. The pattern of the reaction, in these as in other reflexes, is 


99 


deeply inwrought in the workings of the nervous system; and when 
the appropriate occasion arises, typical organic responses are evoked 
through inherent automatisms.” 

Emotional movements are not the only movements that are inwrought 
in the workings of the nervous system. All of our inherited movements 
or instincts, as well as all of our acquired reflexes or habits are ingrained 
in the nervous system. Maudsley informs us that „the acquired functions 
of the spinal cord, and of the sensory ganglia, obviously imply the 
existence of memory, which is indispensable to their formation and 
exercise. How else could these centres be educated? The impression 
made upon them, and the answering movements, both leave their traces 
behind them, which are capable of being revived on the occasions of 
similar impressions. A ganglionic centre, whether of mind, sensation, 
or movement, which was without memory, would be an idiotic centre, 
incapable of being taught its functions. In every nerve-cell there is 
memory, and not only so, but there is memory in every organic element 
of the body. The virus of small-pox or of syphilis makes its mark on 
the constitution for the rest of life. We may forget it, but it will not 
forget us, though, like the memory of an old man, it may fade and 
become faint with advancing age.” 

Thus our inherited instincts or reflexes as well as our acquired 
reflexes or habits form characteristic brain patterns, and, when given 
the stimulus, the nervous system will take charge of the various 
activities. Each educational acquisition forms a normal complex or 
pattern which is somehow associated or linked together to form our 
body of knowledge. When certain kind of dissociations occur, we may, 
as Freud informs us, get emotional complexes, and they may create 
havoc in the nervous system. Of course besides normal and abnormal 
emotional complexes, we may also have intellectual complexes, which 
may be normal as well as abnormal, as cited by many mental specialists. 
The same holds true of our volitional patterns or associations. 

In the previous pages, we spoke of the emotional complex such 
as fear, as well as the thalamus, being a centre which has something 
to do with expression of emotional reactions, and which includes not 
only the expression of fear, but also the instinctive reaction of flight 
or escape. Shand, in his work „The Foundations of Character discusses 
the various emotional systems such as fear, disgust and the like. He 
states that „the instincts of flight and concealment, involving so many 
co-ordinated movements for the fulfilment of their ends, are a part, 
and at first the largest and principal part, of the emotional system of 
fear, as imposing the end at which the system aims. And that part 

8 * 


of the system which is in the mind includes not only the feeling and 
impulse of fear, but all the thoughts that subserve escape from danger. 
As we advance in life these acquired constituents, which modify the 
inherited structure of fear, become ever more numerous and important 
in- correspondence with the growth of our experience.” It is interesting 
to note that Shand speaks of the inherited structure of fear, while we 
name them organs of fear, fie adds that „as there are in the body 
certain greater systems and certain lesser systems, so there are such 
also in the character. And as in the body the greater systems include 
certian v subsidiary organs or systems,—as the nutritive system, its 
various organs, and the nervous systems, other systems, as the sym¬ 
pathetic, the peripheral, and the central nervous system*—so in the 
character also there are certain principal systems which organise others 
subsidiary to them. Now among these lesser systems that are, or may 
be, organised in greater, are the primary emotions with their connected 
instincts.” fie then enumerates the six primary emotions-which he calls 
systems of fear, anger, disgust, curiosity, joy and sorrow, and which 
include instincts or innate tendencies in their systems. From these 
lesser systems of the emotions, greater systems are organized, known 
as the sentiments. „The most conspicuous of these greater systems is 
Love; and in all Love there is an organisation of the lesser systems 
of many emotions, — as those of fear, anger, joy, and sorrow besides 
others.” 

William McDougall, in his Social Psychology, gives his view of 
the close connection between instinct and emotion. He represents a 
primary emotion as „the affective aspect of the operation of any one 
of the principal instincts.” We cannot be drawn any further into this 
discussion, as the works of Thorndike, Woodworth, James, Crile, Judd, 
McDougall, Shand, Watson, Titchner, Warren, Stanley Hall, Dearborn, 
Jastrow, Pillsbury, Burton Opitz, Tilney and Riley, Sherrington, and 
many others, are easily accessible, and give us in detail the functions 
of the nervous system, the analysis of mental life, and at the same 
time introduce experimental evidences. We may, however, draw attention 
to the fact that Shand's primary emotions differ just slightly from our 
own, which are pleasure, pain, anger, fear, wonder and disgust. Instead 
of joy as given by Shand, we give pleasure; instead of sorrow, we 
name it pain; and instead of curiosity, we have the emotion of wonder. 
Pleasure is the generic term for all pleasurable emotions including joy. 
Pain is the generic term for all painful feelings or emotions including 
mental pain known as grief, sorrow, and the like. (See photographs); 
as well as the mental painful or unpleasant feeling which accompanies 



101 


the sensation of pain. The sensation of pain is due to a sensory ex¬ 
perience from the pain receptors; while the feeling of pain is a response 
of the neuromuscular mechanism in characteristic patterns to the sensory 
or ideational stimulus, as may be seen in photographs 269—273. Wonder, 
as seen in photographs 210, 211, 212, has a characteristic emotional 
expression, which is readily recognized, and experienced by animals, 
primitive people, young children, as well as adults. 

The seven primary emotions named by McDougall include fear, 
disgust, wonder and anger, fie adds the emotion of subjection, elation, 
and the tender emotion, and states that „from these seven primary 
emotions together with feelings of pleasure and pain (and perhaps also 
feelings of excitement and of depression) are compounded all, or almost 
all, the affective states that are popularly recognized as emotions.” As 
our objectivized emotions (photographs) seem to show some overlapping 
in this classification, we therefore substituted pleasure and pain, which 
have characteristic expressive movements, for elation, subjection and 
tender emotion. In fact the parental instinct not only excites the tender 
emotions, but also all the emotions which we consider are the primary 
emotions. 

We must again repeat the important statement that we must wait 
for our movements as we wait for our sensations, and then only can 
we experience mental states known as sensations, feelings or emotions. 
Thus it seems that all our mental or psychical experiences are first 
aroused involuntarily, which implies involuntary and nonvoluntary atten¬ 
tion. After the sensory stimuli have made their impressions upon 
appropriate nerve centres, we get our sensations which are accompanied 
by the movements which they arouse. These also are impressed upon 
the various motor centres in the brain; and thus complex patterns are 
ingrained in the nervous system, giving us our intellectual complexes 
forming our body of knowledge; emotional complexes, forming our 
emotional systems; and volitional complexes, giving us what is known 
as „Will”. We may say with James that the highest centres do pro¬ 
bably contain nothing but arrangements for representing impressions 
and movements, and other arrangements for coupling the activity of 
these arrangements together. Currents pouring in from sense organs 
first excite some arrangements, which in turn excite others, until at last 
a discharge downwards of some sort occurs. It is an intellectual or 
thinking consciousness, when associative memory or the thought process 
is going on in the focal region; it is the emotional consciousness when 
the emotional system is emphasized; it is the volitional consciousness 
when the „Will” processes are strongest. However, the three aspects 


102 


of consciousness are inextricably interwoven not only with each other, 
but with every other organic process going on in the body, as the 
respiratoy, the circulatory, the glandular, the muscular, and the like, as 
well as the 20 or more receptors which pour their impulses into the 
brain. We thus may assume that if the stimulus is intense enough, we 
may have at least 20 or more different conscious qualitative states. It 
is not merely a thinking, feeling, or willing, nor a seeing, hearing, tasting, 
smelling, and the like consciousness, but also a thirst, a hunger, a sex, 
a respiratory, and the like consciousness. It is not merely the action 
of the mechanism which is ingrained in the nervous system in charac¬ 
teristic patterns, and which we name the organs of the emotions, that 
may be forced into consciousness, and take complete possession of us, 
when stimulated by an emotion producing object or thought, but the 
deviation of the normal action of any organ in the body, may do the 
same. We certainly are as aware and conscious of the fact that at 
times our heart throbs or we pant for breath when walking quickly, as 
we are conscious and aware that we hear and see. We certainly are 
aware and conscious of the fact that we are hungry, thirsty, and that 
we may become so weak from hunger that we tremble all over or are 
almost ready to faint. In fact, as we all know, prolonged hunger and 
thirst, as well as lack of oxygen, induces the death of the individual, 
because without food, water and air, the individual cannot survive. 

In other words, although many of our bodily actions are instinctive 
or reflex, taking place without the intervention of our conscious atten¬ 
tion or will, they force themselves into consciousness in spite of our¬ 
selves, and thus we become aware of various actions of the body, such 
as winking, the withdrawal of the hand when in contact with a very 
hot object, breathing, sighing, the increasing activitiy of the salivary 
glands, the flow of tears, trembling from cold or fear, palpitation of the 
heart, and the like, as well as all our expressive muscular movements, 
which are identified in ^consciousness as feelings and emotions. We are 
not merely aware of most of our inherited reflexes, but also of our 
acquired reflexes such as walking, writing, speaking, the playing of a 
piano, violin or any other musical instrument, reading, knitting, and the 
like. These acquired skilled movements were at first performed with 
effort or with voluntary attention, and by frequent exercise and practice, 
a particular br^in pattern became inwrought in the nervous system, and 
thus acquired habits or reflexes were formed. This implies that although 
inherited and acquired reflexes or habits may take place mechanically, 
we are to some extent aware of their activity. 

It is through observation of our own internal states, known as in- 





103 


trospection, that we become aware of our bodily activities. We stated 
that when the visual area is emphasized, we see objects, persons, or 
things, or think by employing visual imagery. In other words, the visual 
part of the brain is active, and holds the centre of the stage or the 
focal field of consciousness, while other activities are taking place in 
the marginal field. Woodworth states „that one of the surest of all 
introspective observations belongs right here, to the effect that we are 
more conscious of that to which we are attending than of anything else. 
Of two stimuli acting at once upon us, we are the more conscious of 
that one which catches our attention; of two acts that we perform simul¬ 
taneously, that one is more conscious that is performed attentively. 

„We need not be entirely unconscious of the act or the stimulus to 
which we are not attending. We may be dimly conscious of it. There 
are degrees of consciousness. Suppose, for example, you are looking 
out of the window while „lost in thought”. You are most conscious of 
the matter of your thoughts, but conscious to a degree of what you see 
out of the window. Your eyes are focused on some particular object 
outside, and you are more conscious of this than of other objects seen 
in indirect vision, though even of these last you are not altogether un¬ 
conscious. Consciousness shades off from high light to dim background. 

„The ,field of attention’ is the maximum or high light of conscious¬ 
ness; it comprises the object under attentive observation, the reaction 
attentively performed. The „field of consciousness” includes the field 
of attention and much besides. It includes objects of which we are 
vaguely aware, desires active but not clearly formulated, feelings of 
pleasantness of unpleasantness, of tension, excitement, confidence etc. 

Apparently the field of consciousness shades off gradually into 
the field of unconscious activity. Some physiological processes go on 
unconsciously, and very habitual movements may be almost or entirely 
unconscious. The boundary between what is vaguely conscious and what 
is entirely unconscious is necessarily very vague itself, but the pro¬ 
bability is that the field of consciousness is broader than we usually 
suspect, and that many activities that we ordinarily think of as un¬ 
conscious, because we do not observe them at the time nor remember 
them later, lie really near the margin of the field of consciousness, but 
inside of that field. „Unconscious motives”, such as spite or pride often 
seem to be, are probably vaguely conscious rather than unconscious.” 

This brings us back to the facts brought out by the camera, that 
preconceived thoughts or feelings are in the marginal field of consci¬ 
ousness and fuse with the activities going on in the focal field. (See 
photographs 1, 2, 3, and 4 in this chapter.) But even in mechanical 




104 


attention, as shown in photographs 257—262, the poser’s introspection 
unfolds quite a history. Let us bear in mind that in the expression of 
attention as seen in photographs 257—262, the emphasis was laid on 
holding an optical attentive attitude, and not on seeing or perceiving 
the camera. In the latter case, the visual or seeing consciousness is 
emphasized, while the related facts are in the margin of the field of 
consciousness. In the former case, the motor cells which have to do 
with influencing the movements of the neck in turning toward the camera, 
are brought into activity followed by the voluntary and involuntary 
actions of motor cells which have to do with the focusing of the eyes, 
as well as holding them in the ^fixation gaze”. We may turn back and 
read the introspective record of the poser of the photographs, to see 
just how many other activities are taking place in the field of consci¬ 
ousness at the same time while an individual is Just looking” voluntarily, 
and seeing reflexly. No doubt many other activities were going on in 
the field of consciousness, which were dimly experienced, and thus not 
recorded, due perhaps to the lack of introspective skill. We may conclude 
that it is not only through external observations, that we learn to know 
that the body acts as a unit; but by introspection, or perhaps retrospection. 
In other words, our various activities leave grooves or traces in the 
nervous system. These are known as impressions or memories which 
may be recalled voluntarily or reflexly. An individual, after having eaten 
a good dinner, knows exactly what he has eaten, may feel an excess 
amount of saliva in his mouth, may, while experiencing the pleasures 
of having eaten well, feel that his stomach is full or extended, walk up 
and down the room, gesticulating with both hands, speaking, thinking, 
seeing, hearing, etc. We know that after such a meal, the digestive 
glands are secreting or doing their part of the bodily work; the muscle 
cells in cooperation with the nerve cells move the body from place to 

place as in walking, or move other parts of the body, as the arms, 

hands and fingers in gesticulating, the muscles of the larynx, respiration, 
and the mouth in speaking, the muscles of the eyes in seeing, the 

muscles of the ear in stretching the ear drum, the muscles in the 

stomach in churning the food, the muscles of expression, indicating 
the pleasurable state of mind, and so on. We know that in muscular 
action, the respiratory nerve-centres in the medulla are stimulated. We 
know that in the neuromuscular act of speaking, the respiratory centre 
is not only stimulated to greater activity, but the respiratory rhythm 
is modified. We know that in seeing, the visual nerve-centres in the 
brain are active; and, that in hearing, the hearing nerve-centres are 
active. We know that in thinking in visual imagery, the visual memory 


105 


centres are active; thinking in auditory images, the auditory memory 
centres are active; thinking in motor images, the motor nerve-cells are 
active. We know that as every cell in the body must breathe, absorb 
and assimilate food, as well as discharge waste products, various 
chemical activities are taking place. We thus see how many activities 
are going on in the body simultaneously. As we are aware of bodily 
conditions known as fatigue and exhaustion, so we are also aware of 
bodily conditions which exhilirate, and we experience the pleasures and 
joys of living. 

All the above facts seem to show that consciousness is merely 
awareness of bodily activity; and that many of the bodily activities that 
we ordinarily think of as unconscious, may not only lie near the margin 
of the field of consciousness, but may possess the focal field, as well 
as any other part. In fact, in unusual atmospheric conditions, the 
respiratory organs may be so active, that they employ every muscle in 
the body to aid in obtaining air, and we are certainly experiencing a 
respiratory consciousness. 

These facts seem to show that we may give mechanical, involuntary, 
nonvoluntary, and voluntary attention to a variety of reflex activities. 
In other words, bodily activity and conscious and unconscious activities 
are various degrees of the same phenomena, and, as attention is a 
universal characteristic state of consciousness, and as consciousness is 
influenced by the quantity and quality of the blood, and as the cerebral 
cells are closely connected with every other part of the nervous system, 
any acquired or inherited reflex activity may enter the focal or marginal 
field of consciousness when stimulated or acting abnormally. 

We may not merely be aware of our bodily activities, nor may our 
inherited or acquired reflexes which are ingrained in the nervous system 
take possession of the focal field of consciousness, but both physiologists 
and psychologists emphasize the important fact that ideas may influence 
instinctive and acquired reflexes and habits. The mouth does not merely 
water at the sight, smell or even thought of food when the stomach 
is empty, but Pawlow, Cannon and others have shown that the digestive 
juices in the stomach are released, and the individual goes through all 
the pleasures of eating. 

Then again, a thought or an idea, say even such as of a „chair”, 
may not only arouse our intellectual activities, which may include our 
whole body of knowledge, but also our emotional systems (feelings, 
emotions, sentiments), as well as our volitional systems (inherited or 
acquired reflexes or habits). Thus we see that any idea, being merely 
a link in a chain of ideas, is closely interwoven with our intellectual, 


106 


emotional, volitional systems, and, like other systems of the body, is 
ingrained in the nervous system. 

Bearing the above facts in mind, and that graded intensity of the 
reflex-effect as shown in photographs 191—196, give us states of 
consciousness that differ in intensity of the pleasurable states, and that 
photograph 191 seems to be just a degree more intense than the normal 
activity of the neuromuscular mechanism known as muscle tonus, due 
not only to the sensory currents pouring into the organism, but also 
to the inherent activity that takes place in the muscle itself, as well as 
the preconceived thoughts of posing for pleasurable expressions of the 
emotions, we may conclude that the pleasurable idea linked with the 
expressive movements which are closely associated with it, have the 
power of increasing or decreasing the neuromuscular activity. But, we 
may also employ ideas of our respiratory movements, which are closely 
linked with the lower respiratory centres to increase or decrease bodily 
action; and, in fact, we may employ any other motor idea to influence 
the graded intensity of the reflex-effect, as moving both arms, or in 
walking or dancing. 

But the various movements do not merely report graded intensity 
in consciousness, but also qualitative differences. The muscular leg 
movements differ from the muscular movements in the finger, hand, 
arm, respiration, and the like; and all these movements differ qualitatively 
from the muscular expressive movements, which having characteristic 
patterns also differ from each other as may readily be seen in the 
various photographs. 

In photographs 257—262, optical attentive attitudes, muscular 
movements are emphasized, and all other ideas are inhibited. We find 
that as additional ideas, pertaining to feeling or emotional situations 
are experienced (263—268), there is a corresponding increase in the 
muscular tension as seen in the face. And, as the intensity of the 
feeling is increased, there is a still greater increase in the contraction 
of the facial muscles, as seen in the various photographs. 

The attentive attitude fuses with all our mental attitudes. The 
thoughtful attitude may be seen in photographs 246 and 248 and the 
like. In photographs 210, 211, and 212, we have a graded intensity of 
the emotion of wonder; in 239—244 graded intensity of surprise; in 
251—256 various expressions of jealousy. 

Photographs 269—274 give expressions of pain culminating in relief; 
275—281 give us religious emotions, beginning with silent prayer, 
expressed with bowed head and then gradually increasing from earnest 























Plate XXIII 



/ 





























Plate XXIV 

















































Plate XXV 

















’ * 



























































I • 







































i - 








% 























’A 






. 4 












« 



























m - 










































■ 




















































■ 

■ 


















































•• t 


































- • 










































































107 


prayer to a greater intensity of the same feeling. In 282—286, we have 
the same emotion with the additional element of love. 

Photographs 287—292 describe a little story which begins with 
perplexity and suspicion (287) and develops into suspicion (288). The 
cause of the suspicion being removed by some information which was 
just received, the feeling develops into a pleasurable surprise. Then 
while still paying attention to the individual (289) who is speaking, 
the emotion of tenderness and interest is excited (299). Then the 
whole situation is taken in or grasped and results in laughter (291). 
Finally a question is put to the poser which she answers by a shrug 
of the shoulders (292). 

The following photographs represent various mental and attentive 


attitudes: 

Self-love . 

photograph 293 

Attention to self 

Sympathy. 

tt 

294 

tt 

„ a happy individual 

» . 

tt 

295 

tt 

„ a suffering „ 

Pity. 

„ 

296 

„ 

»a „ „ 

Love. 

tt 

297 

tt 

„ a loving child 

tt . 

tt 

298 


„ a loving individual 

Bad news. 

tt 

299* 


„ a person talking 

Too bad! . 

tt 

300 

tt 

over the telephone 

tt » 

It’s awful! . 

tt 

301 

» 

tt » 

It’s terrible! .... 

it 

302 

v 


My God! . 

n 

303 

n 

and shock 

It’s awful! . 

•t 

304 

» 

to self (thoughts 

It’s terrible! . . . . 

» 

305 


and feelings) 

tt tt tt 

What shall I do? 

it 

306 

n 

to a higher power 

1 am real glad to hear it 

tt 

307 

it 

„ a person talking 

I am very glad to hear it 

tt 

308 

» 

over the telephone 

n tt 

Isn’t that fine! . . • 

tt 

309 

n 

n tt 

It’s great! . 

tt 

310 

tt 

tt tt 

I am happy! . . . . 

tt 

311 

tt. 

„ self (thoughts and 

I am so happy! . . . 

tt 

312 

n 

feelings) 

tt n 

I am delighted! . . . 

tt 

313 

» 

» » 

It’s great! . 

it 

314 

n 

n n 


We may conclude this chapter by saying that attention is a universal 
characteristic state of consciousness, and as the body works and reacts 









108 


■ /r 


i 





as a unit, some activity is more dominant, and thus takes possession 


of the focal field, while the others are acting in the marginal field of 
consciousness. We may also have preconceived thoughts and feelings 
fuse in consciousness and influencing our mental states and actions. 

We may say with Thorndike that „emotions as a class are character¬ 
ized by emphatic bodily expression; e. g., fear expresses itself far more 
than does a feeling of seventeen. It is usually not difficult to tell 
whether a person is frightened, happy, angry or eager by his facial 
expression and bodily movements, whereas it is impossible to tell 
whether he is thinking of seventeen or of seventy, of a cat or of a mat. 
Other mental states do, of course, influence the bodily organs, the facial 
muscles especially, but not to such an extent as do the emotions 
Doing arithmetic does raise the pulse, but it cannot make the heart gc 
pit-a-pat as fear does. Attention leads to a frown, but not to the 
tremendous wrinkles of the man in a rage.” 







Chapter VI 


Experiment in judgment of facial 
expression of the emotions 

It has been already indicated in the previous chapter that the 
psychology of the emotion is still an unexplored field, and that any 
light which could be thrown upon the subject would be of great value. 
In this study, an effort has been made to obtain judgments of expressions 
of various emotions given in the previous chapters, and to study the 
degree of agreement found in 'these judgments; and, at the same time, 
perhaps, to select a series of photographs which would be typical 
representations of various emotional states. These photographs could 
be employed as representations of the various emotions and might be 
studied at leisure, whereas the emotions, because of their fleeting 
nature could not be grasped and held fast and studied in the laboratory. 
The photographs present concrete images of abstract terms, such as 
attention, interest, surprise, etc. 

A series of several hundred photographs of the same individual 
was taken at different times during a period of one year. These were 
sifted down to eighty six, and presented to one hundred reliable 
individuals (1). Each subject was given the photographs, all of which 
were numbered, and three sheets of paper. Upon one sheet were numbers 
which corresponded to the numbers upon the photographs, and upon 
the other two sheets was given a list of words naming various emotions. 
The following were the directions the subject received. 

Experiment in Judgment of Expression. Materials: Photographs, a 
list of words, and a list of numbers. 

Read through quickly the list of words in order to refresh your 
memory with the names of the different expressions. Observe each 
photograph carefully and write upon the sheet, opposite the corresponding 
number, the name of the expression which the photographs suggest to 
you. If one word does not suffice to express the meaning, add the 
necessary words.” The subject was also requested to write down his 
introspection. 




- 110 — 

List of words 

Laughter 

Smiling 

Joy 

Delight 

Pleasure 

Gladness 

Glee 

Happiness 

Amusement 

Bliss 

Ecstasy 

Cheerfulness 

Rapture 

Enthusiasm 

Merriment 

Grief 

Sorrow 

Sadness 

Despair 

Mental suffering 
Physical suffering 
Pain 

Displeasure 

Annoyance 

Irritation 

Worry 

Bore 

Bitterness 

Hardness 

Religious 
, Altruistic 
0Ve Romantic 
Sensuous 
Astonishment 
Amazement 
Wonder 
Admiration 
Surprise 
Awe 

Attention 






Ill 


Interest 

Expectancy 

Want of interest 

Modesty 

Humility 

Self abasement 

Pride 

Haughtiness 

Self-assertion 

Calculation 

Meditation 

Reflection 

Thought 

Hate 

Disgust 

Pity 

Sympathy 

Vanity 

Coquetry 

Coyness 

Liking 

Tenderness 

Longing 

Yearning 

Desire 

Earnestness 

Eagerness 

Reverence 

Religious feeling 

Friendliness 

Fear 

Terror 

Horror 

Suspicion 

Dread 

Alarm 

Fright 

Anxiety 

Hopelessness 

Despondency 

Awe 







Contempt 
Scorn 
Sneering 
Loathing 
Repugnance 
Dislike 
Aversion 
Antipathy 
Rage 
Fury 
Anger 
Distraction 
Passion 
Calmness 
Resignation 
Beauty 
Ugliness 
Dismay 
Timidity 
Defiance 
Determination 
Firmness 
Faith 
Trust 
Resolution 
Aspiration 
Relief 
Hope 

The photographs and records given in this chapter were obtained 
in the following manner: A. F. induced various mental and bodily states, 
either by means of calling up the particular emotion or by reciting words 
expressing the desired emotion. The facial expressions following each 
of these states were instantly snapped by the photographer. The words 
or images of the emotions which A. F. employed in posing were carefully 
written down and are given at the head of each page of the accomp¬ 
anying records. The latter also contain the judgments of one hundred 
individuals who reacted to the facial expression represented in the 
photographs and responded by giving their judgments as to its character, 
The 86 photographs with the hundred judgments of each, and the 
conclusions based on them are given in the following pages: 









113 


Photograph 
No. 1. 

Posed for the 4 th 
line, 6th stanza of 
Margaret’s 
monologue. 
(Alone at the 
Spinning wheel.) 


66 ( 1 )* 


delight. 

J u d g 

m e n t s. 

interest . 

. . 3 

rapture. 

... 10 

interested merriment. . 

. . 2 

enthusiasm . . . . 

... 9 

delighted anticipation 

. . 2 

ecstasy. 

... 7 

coquetry. 

. . 2 

glee.'. 

... 6 

desire. 

. . 2 

surprise. 

... 6 

attention. 

. . 1 

delight # surprise . . 

... 1 

admiration. 

. . 1 

pleasant surprise . . 

... 2 

admiration & awe . . . 

. . 1 

happy surprise . . . 

... 1 

admiration & surprise . 

. . 1 

pleasure . 

... 3 

ecstasy & rapture . . . 

. . 1 

sudden pleasure . . 

. . . l 

exultation. 

. . 1 

gladness. 

... 5 

amusement. 

. . 1 

joy. 

... 4 

appreciation. 

. . 1 

bliss. 

... 2 

amazement. 

. . 1 

expectancy .... 

... 2 

wonder. 

. . 1 

pride. 

... 1 

ugliness. 

. . 1 

passion. 

... 1 

forced . , 

. . 1 


CONCLUSION: Of the 100 individual judgments as given above 86°/ 0 imply pleasurable 
emotions of a higher or lesser degree; 12% are terms denoting neutral states with 
regard to pleasure; and 2% are contradictory ones. The four most frequently given 
judgments are delight (16 V 2 ), rapture (10 V 2 ), enthusiasm (9), ecstasy (7 V 2 ), Apparently 
delight is what may be called the central judgment. A closer examination will 
somewhat modify this view. We find that the words rapture, ecstasy, enthusiasm, 
are almost interchangeable. Rapture is defined as „a state of being rapt or carried 
away from one’s self by agreeable excitement; ecstasy”. Ecstasy in turn is „a state 
of being beside one’s self or rapt out of one’s self; excessive joy or enthusiasm. 
Enthusiasm again is ,,an intense and rapturous feeling felt or displayed etc.” Other 
terms such as bliss, passion, exaltation, are also indications of a high degree 
of excitement The central judgment would fall either on rapture or enthusiasm, 
the latter term including rapture and intensity according to definition. Enthusiasm, 
therefore, including rapture as an element, would be the more appropriate term to 
represent the expression portrayed in photograph No. 1. (See Note 2.) 

* The 86 photographs used in this experiment have two numbers. The first corresponds with the 
number as given in the previous chapters; the second, which is in parenthesis, corresponds with the number 
as given in this experiment. 

Feelings and Emotions. 



9 
































114 


Photograph 
No. 2. 

Posed for the third 
line, 6th stanza, 
of Margaret’s 
monologue. 
(Alone at the 
spinning wheel.) 



65 ( 2 ) 


„The smile of his 
lips”. 


Judgments. 


pleasure ..20 

happiness.12 

smiling.11 

interest.9 

pleasing interest.1 

joy.6 

expectancy.5 

amusement.6 

delight .3 

gladness.3 

cheerfulness.4 

laughter.2 

liking.2 

good news of importance . . 1 


eagerness.1 

contentment.1 

friendliness.1 

simplicity.1 

calmness.1 

enjoyment.1 

sympathetic.1 

sympathetic merriment . . . 1 

wonder 8s surprise .... 2 

pleasant response.1 

admiration.1 

rapture . l 

fun. 1 

astonishment.1 


CONCLUSION: 95% of the observers give pleasure [the most 
frequently given judgment (20)], or terms which define pleasurable 
emotions; 5% give wonder and surprise (2), astonishment (1), 
simplicity (1), terms which, though not in agreement with the general 
judgment, are not contradictory to it excepting astonishment (1). 

We may therefore accept photograph No. 2 as a typical represen¬ 
tation of pleasure (3). 




























115 


Photograph 
No. 3. 

Posed for the second 
line in Margaret’s 
speech to Faust. 
(Garden scene.) 


72 ( 3 ) 


modesty .... 

J u d g 

. . . . 22 

m e n t s. 

sad. 

. 1 

coyness .... 

... 10 

contempt & modesty. . . 

. 1 

shyness .... 


tenderness . 

. 1 

coquetry .... 

.... 6 

reproof . 

. 1 

sympathy.... 

.... 5 

docility. 

. 1 

interest .... 

.... 4 

demure. 

. 1 

humility .... 

.... 3 

uncertainty. 

. 1 

pity. 

.... 3 

timidity. 

. 1 

thought .... 

.... 3 

timidity & earnestness . . 

. 1 

cajoling .... 

.... 2 

reproach . 

. 1 

liking. 

.... 2 

meditation. 

. 1 

tenderness & sweet 

thought . 2 

reflection. 

. 1 

earnestness . . . 

.... 2 

amusement. 

. 1 

suspicion .... 

.... 2 

disappointment. 

. 1 

longing .... 

... 2 

attention. 

, . 1 

contentment . . . 

.... 2 

want of interest . . . . 

. . 1 

yearning .... 

.... 2 

disdain. 

. . 1 

>.ssivity .... 

.... 1 

doubt . 

. . 1 

‘calmness . • • • 

.... 1 

character. 

. . 1 


CONCLUSION: 85 l / 2 7 0 use either the word modesty [the most 
frequently given judgment (22 l /o times)] or terms that name either all or some 
of its elements; 11% give neutral terms with regard to modesty; 3V 2 % 
give contradictory ones. We would therefore seem to be justified in 
accepting photograph No. 3 as a representation of modesty, which would 
also correspond to the emotion implied in the lines „To shame me, sir, 
you stoop so low.” 



9 





































116 



71 ( 4 ) 


Judgments. 


interest . . . 

. 22 

happiness . . . 

2 

want of interest 

. 1 

expectancy . . 

. 12 

delight. 

2 

observation . . 

. 1 

attention . . . 

. 11 

uncertain trust . . 

1 

desire .... 

. *1 

pleasure . . . 

. 5 

enthusiasm . . . 

1 

wonder . . . 

. 1 

friendliness . . 

. 5 

bashful coquetry . 

1 

modesty . . . 

. 1 

tenderness . . 

. 4 

why, yes! that’s so 

1 

timidity . . . 

. 1 

calmness . . . 

. 4 

serene . 

1 

sympathy. . . 

. 1 

earnestness . . 

. 3 

smiling .... 

1 

vanity . . 

. 1 

trust .... 

. 3 

meditation . . . 

1 

romantic love . 

. 1 

reflection . . . 

. 2 

admiration . . . 

1 

yearning . . . 

. 1 

thought . . . 

. 2 

contentment . . . 

1 

peaceful . . . 

. 1 

cheerfulness . . 

. 2 

liking. 

1 



CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 

40% interest (22 times), expectancy (12), earnestness (3), 
trust (3). 

24°/ 0 attention (11 times), calmness (4), thought or related 
terms. 

14% pleasure (5) or related terms. 

15% friendliness (5), tenderness (5) or related terms. 

4% modesty, bashful coquetry or related terms. 

3% want of interest, uncertain trust, wonder. 

According to the evidence of the judgments given above, we may 
conclude that photograph No. 4 represents interest (the most frequently 
given judgment) tinged with tenderness and modesty, —a complex emotion 
which would conform to the emotional state of Margaret when she says 
to Faust, „I feel it, you but spare my ignorance.” 












117 


Photograph 
No. 5. 

Posed for aesthetic 
pleasure. 

(Viewing a beautiful 
landscape.) 


coyness . 

. 14 

pleasurable reflection . . 

. 2 

coquetry. 

. 12 

attention. 

. 2 

pleasure. 

. 10 

tenderness . 

, . 1 

gladness. 

. 7 

merriment. 

. . 1 

expectation. 

. 8 

romantic love. 

. . 1 

interest . 

. 6 

amusement & wonder . 

. . 1 

smiling. 

. 4 

yearning. 

. . 1 

liking. 

. 3 

appreciation. 

. . 1 

bliss. 

. 2 

glee.. • 

. . 1 

longing. 

. 2 

want of interest . . . 

. . 1 

amusement. 

. 2 

delight. 

. . 1 

coquetish amusement . . 

. 1 

friendliness. 

. . 1 

happiness. 

. 2 

aspiration. 

. . 1 

happiness & romantic love 

. 2 

politeness. 

. . 1 

cheerfulness. 

. 2 

shyness . 

. . 1 

reflection. 

. 2 

suspicion. 

. . 1 

joy. 

. 2 

suspended judgment. . 

. . 1 

CONCLUSION: The judgments may 

be arranged in the following groups: 


28% coyness (14), coquetry (12), or related terms. 

38°/° pleasure (10), gladness (7) or related terms. 

14% expectation (8), interest (6). 

12% liking (3), romantic love (2). 

5% reflection (3), attention (2). 

3% want of interest (1), suspicion (1) suspended judgment. 
92% of the judgments are either pleasure or have pleasure as an important 
element. All we can say of photograph No. 5 according to evidence 
given above is that it is a representation of some sort of pleasure. 



119 ( 5 ) 

Judgments. 
































118 



3 u d g m e n t s. 


laughter. 

... 19 

bliss. 

. . 1 

merriment . . . . 

... 14 

defiance. 

. . 1 

happiness. 

... It 

delight.. 

. . 1 

amusement . . . . 

... 11 

friendly. 

. . 1 

pleasure . 

u 

enjoyment. 

. . 1 

joy. 


admiration. 

. . 1 

glee. 

... 5 

aspiration. 

. . 1 

gladness. 


ecstasy . 

. . 1 

cheerfulness . . . . 

... 4 

beauty. 

. . 1 

smiling. 

. .. 3 

interest & satisfaction . 

. . 1 

humour. 

... 2 




CONCLUSION: 99% use terms describing various pleasurable feelings, 
one judgment only being contradictory (defiance). We are therefore 
justified in regarding this photograph as a typical representation of 
pleasure. 






















119 



125 ( 7 ) 


Judgments. 


smiling . . . 

. 12 

tenderness . . . 

2 

satisfied expectancy 1 

cheerfulness . . 

. 9 

love. 

2 

indifference ... 1 

pleasure . . . 

. 7 

friendliness . . . 

2 

bore .....: 1 

interest . . . 

. 7 

bliss. 

2 

want of interest . 1 

sensuous love . 

. 5 

haughtiness . . . 

2 

gladness .... 1 

amusement . . 

. 5 

romantic love & 


eagerness .... 1 

contentment . . 

. 4 

yearning . . . 

1 

uncertainty . . . 1 

happiness. . . 

. 4 

pride. 

2 

pleased with oneself 1 

admiration . . 

. 3 

merriment . • • 

1 

sweetness.... 1 

liking .... 

. 3 

vanity. 

1 

pleased thought . 1 

attention . . . 

. 3 

desire. 

1 

resignation . . . 1 

satisfaction . . 

. 3 

nonchalant . . . 

1 

pleasant . . . . 1 

enjoyment . . 

. 3 

trust. 

1 

immaterial . . . 1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 

65°/ 0 pleasure or related terms. 

21°/ 0 love or related terms. 

10% contradictory. 

4% neutral. 

21 of the observers give love as their judgment, 65 use terms of 
pleasure which is an important characteristic of love. The majority thus 
see either all or most of the characteristics of sensuous love. It is 
interesting to note that 5 actually use the phrase sensuous love as 
their judgment. 












120 



Judgments. 


smiling . . . 

. 16 

interest .... 

3 

rest & sweet smile 

1 

pleasure . . . 

. 13 

rapture .... 

3 

want of interest . 

1 

gladness . . . 

. 8 

delight. 

3 

eagerness .... 

1 

cheerfulness . . 

. 8 

looking at something 


agreeableness . . 

1 

amusement . . 

. 7 

pleasant . . . 

1 

relief. 

1 

happiness . . 

. 4 

liking. 

2 

trust . 

1 

romantic love . 

. 3 

sympathy.... 

2 

enthusiasm . . . 

1 

tenderness . . 

. 3 

happiness 8s love . 

1 

good will .... 

1 

friendliness . . 

. 3 

bliss. 

1 

attention returning 

1 

merriment . . 

. 3 

serene enjoyment . 

1 

contentment . . . 

1 

joy. 

. 3 

laughter .... 

1 

mother love . . . 

1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged into the following groups: 

76% pleasure or synonyms. 

22°/ 0 love or synonyms. 

1% attention. 

1% contradictory. 

22°/o give judgments of love or synonyms, just one more than in 
case of photograph No. 7. 

76 name pleasurable feelings, a greater number than in case of 
photograph No. 7 (65). It would appear from this that the expression of 
pleasure in this photograph was more intense than that in the preceding 
one. 







121 



175 ( 9 ) 



Judgments. 


surprise .... 

.... 30 

horror. 

... 2 

wonder .... 

... 14 

rapture . 

. . . 1 

amazement . . . 

. ... 13 

enthusiasm . . . . 

. . . 1 

astonishment . . 

.... 13 

anticipation . . . . 

. . . 1 

awe. 

.... 6 

interest . 

. . . 1 

expectation . . . 

.... 5 

aspiration . . . . 

. . . 1 

admiration . . . 

.... 4 

desire. 

. . . 1 

attention .... 

.... 4 

dismay. 

. . . 1 

rapt. 

.... 1 

delight. 

. . . 1 


CONCLUSION: 86% use either the word surprise (the most frequently 
given judgment, — 30 times) or terms describing various degrees of 
surprise or its elements. 14% give neutral terms. We are, therefore, 
warranted in saying that photograph No. 9 is a typical representation of 
surprise. Since breathlessness is an important element of surprise, 
we may consider the latter as being very close to breathless interest 
especially if the surprise, like interest, is pleasurable. 























122 



182 (1C) 


Judgments. 


suspicion . . 

. . 14 

mental suffering . 

2 

cynical . . . . 

1 

hate . . . 

. . 9 

perplexity . . • 

2 

contemptuous . . 

1 

aversion . . 

. . 6 

annoyace .... 

2 

disgust .... 

1 

loathing . . 

. . 6 

sympathy . . • 

1 

anxiety .... 

1 

dislike . . . 

. . 5 

distraction . . . 

1 

hopelessness . . 

1 

anger . . . 

. . 5 

despair .... 

1 

despise .... 

1 

repugnance . 

. . 4 

despondency 

1 

determination . . 

1 

displeasure . 

. . 4 

irritation .... 

1 

she cannot be con¬ 


antipathy . . 

. . 3 

bewilderment . . 

1 

vinced by such 


disdain . . 

. . 3 

dislike # fear . . 

1 

an argument. . 

1 

fear .... 

. . 2 

unfriendly . . . 

1 

indignation . . 

1 

defiance . . 

. . 2 

indignant suspicion 

1 

hardness .... 

1 

distrust . . 

. . 2 

contempt .... 

1 

bitterness . . . 

1 

dread . . . 

. . 2 

anger & loathing . 

1 

severity .... 

1 

scorn . . . 

. . 2 

interest .... 

1 

self-assertion . . 

1 

CONCLUSION: 

The judgments may be arranged 

in the following groups: 


23 V 2 *7(1 suspicion (15) or synonyms. 

58 1 / 2 %* hate (9) or synonyms. 

17°/ 0 displeasure (4) or synonyms. 

1% interest. 

Only 23 1 / 2 °/o name the expression in the photograph suspicion (or 
synonyms). The majority of the remaining judgments ascribe to it 
either hate (58V 2 °/o) or displeasure (17), both characteristic of a high 
degree of suspicion. We shall perhaps be justified in considering this 
photograph as a representation of suspicion of a high degree (4). 














123 


Photograph 
No. 11. 

Posed for attention. 
The camera snapped 
A. F. while she was 
multiplying 19x19. 



173 ( 11 ) 


Judgments. 


attention .... 

15 

trying to catch some 


interest .... 

15 

subtle meaning 


calm. 

9 

to be analyzed . 

1 

reflection .... 

5 

deliberation . . . 

1 

thought .... 

4 

curiosity .... 

1 

expectancy . . . 

4 

pleasure .... 

1 

meditation . . . 

2 

cheerfulness . . . 

1 

calculation . . . 

3 

sympathy... 

1 

determination . . 

2 

arbitration . . . 

1 

hope. 

2 

doubt. 

1 

bored. 

2 

annoyance . . . 

1 

resignation . . . 

2 

irritation .... 

1 

sadness .... 

2 

anxiety .... 

1 

concentrated thought 

1 

wonder . . . 

1 

penetrating deep 


serious '. . . . 

1 

thought . . . 

1 

concern .... 

1 



carelessness . . . 

1 


nothing . . . . 1 

hurt.1 

dislike.1 

displeasure . . . 1 

modesty . . . . 1 

beginning with fear 1 
disfavor . ... 1 

lack of interest. . 1 

cynicism . . . . 1 

a shrinking back . 1 

worry.1 

eagerness.... 1 

posing.1 

questioning . . . 1 

awe.1 

mental suffering . 1 


CONCLUSION: Of the 100 judgments given, 15 are attention, 55 are 
terms closely related to it, and the rest are terms implying attention as an 
important element. We may, therefore, accept this photopraph as a 
typical representation of an attentive state of mind. It is interesting 
to note that 11 use terms relating to thought, 3 use the word calculation, 
1, concentrated thought, 1, penetrating deep thought, 1 trying to catch 
some subtle meaning to be analyzed. 













124 


Photograph 
No. 12. 


Posed 

for concentrated 
attention 
and anoyance. 



176 ( 12 ) 


Judgments. 


worry. 

14 

self-assertion . . 

2 

anguish . . . . 

1 

annoyance . . . 

12 

thought . . . . 

2 

concentration . . 

1 

annoyance due to 


discontent. . . . 

1 

grief. 

1 

lack of under¬ 


anger . 

1 

irritating thought . 

1 

standing . . '. 

1 

awe. 

1 

penetrating deep 


dislike. 

8 

defiance. 

l 

thought. . . . 

1 

irritation . . . . 

6 

provoked . . . . 

1 

bored. 

1 

displeasure . , . 

5 

antipathy . . . . 

1 

distress . . . . 

1 

anxiety . . . . 

4 

mental pain . . . 

1 

rebellious . . . . 

1 

disdain. 

3 

puzzled . . . . 

1 

unbelief . . . . 

1 

pain. 

3 

dismay. 

1 

incredulous . . . 

, 1 

bitterness . . . . 

2 

expectancy . . . 

1 

doubt . 

, 1 

despondency. . . 

2 

resolution. . . . 

1 

disbelief . . . . 

, 1 

aversion . . . . 

2 

firmness . . . . 

1 

repugnant 


suspicion . . . . 

2 

physical suffering . 

1 

agreeableness. 

. 1 

perplexity. . . . 

2 

astonishment . . 

1 



grief & irritation . 

» 

2 

stubborn refusal . 

1 



CONCLUSION: 

The two most frequently given judgments are worry 


(14) and annoyance (12). These together with their synonyms constitute 
89°/o of all judgments. The remaining 11% give thought, concentration 
etc. No one has judged the expression to be that of attention; but then 
we must consider that concentrated attention as well as worry and annoyance 
are characterized by a frown, which apparently has been seen by all. 
We may conclude that photograph No. 12 is a representation of thought 
accompanied with worry or annoyance. 














125 


Photograph 
No. 13. 

Posed for suspicion. 



181 ( 13 ) 


suspicion .... 7 

dread.7 

hate.6 

fear.6 

displeasure ... 6 
repugnance ... 6 
annoyance ... 5 
dislike ..... 4 
disdain .... 4 
aversion .... 4 

worry.3 

irritation .... 3 
loathing .... 3 
disgust .... 3 
antipathy .... 2 


Judgments. 


horror.2 

calculation ... 2 
bitterness ... 2 
contempt . . . . .,2- 

anger .2 

anger & distraction 1 

scorn.1 

horror & fascination 1 
perplexity ... 1 

contempt and 
loathing . . . l 

bore.1 

indignation ... 1 

indecision ... 1 

impatience ... 1 


opposition . . . 1 

distraction . . . 1 

critical aversion . 1 

unbelief . . . . 1 

crankiness . . . 1 

hardness . . . . 1 

repulsion .... 1 

aversion and 

suspicion . . . 1 

study.1 

dismay . . . . 1 

think out some 
trouble .... 1 

penetrating deep 
thought ... 1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 

12°/ 0 suspicion (7V 2 ) or synonyms. 

5% thought. 

2% self-assertiveness. 

53°/o dread (7) or synonyms. 

28% displeasure (6) or synonyms. 

Only 12% call the expression suspicion; the others give the 
important characteristics of suspicion. Since 53% give dread or its 
synonyms, we may conclude that photograph No. 13 is a representation of 
suspicion accompanied with dread (the two most frequently given 
judgments). 










126 



177 ( 14 ) 


Judgments. 


sneering. 

. . 36 

antipathy . . . . 


. 1 

sneering & contempt 

. . 1 

coquetry . . . . 


. 1 

contempt. 

. . 16 

snub. 


. 1 

scorn . 

. . 16 

resignation . . . 


. 1 

disdain. 

. . 7 

disagreeable . . . 


. 1 

haughtiness. 

. . 6 

superiority . . . 


. . 1 

snobbishness .... 

. . 2 

scoffing . . . . 


. i 

disgust. 

. . 2 

lack of interest 


. 1 

self-assertion .... 

. . 2 

pride. 


. 1 

sneer & disgust . . . 

. . 1 

repugnance . . . 


. . 1 

displeasure . 

. . 1 





CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgment is sneering (36) 
which is the name of the external expression of the feeling of contempt, 
and the word contempt itself is given 16 1 /., times, being the second 
most frequently given judgment The third judgment in order of 
frequency is scorn (16), which is kindred to but somewhat stronger 
than contempt. Contempt with its synonyms is given 30 times, and 
scorn with its synonyms 31 times, the classification being based upon 
the assumption that anything of the nature of scorn partakes of more 
angry feeling than contempt. It would seem then from the general trend 
of the judgments given that the expression in photograph No. 14 is that 
of a high degree of contempt approaching scorn (5). 






















127 


Photograph 
No. 15. 


Posed for interest. 



174 ( 15 ) 



J u d g 

interest.22 

expectancy. 19 

attention. 13 

hope. 5 

eagerness. 5 

want of interest.4 

wonder.2 

anxiety..2 

longing.3 

enthusiasm.2 

wonder & sympathy .... 1 

pity. 1 

admiration.1 

trust.1 

desire.1 

reflection.1 

smiling.1 


m e n t s. 

thought & intent listening. . 1 

watching. \ 

calculation.l 

uncertain hope.1 

labor.1 

romantic love.1 

tenderness.1 

aversion.1 

receptive.1 

liking.1 

annoyance . 1 

repugnance . 1 

groping for an idea . ... 1 

waiting for an idea . ... 1 

love (distance).1 

sorrow..1 


CONCLUSION: 87% give interest (22 times, the most frequently given 
judgment) or related terms; 11% use contradictory words. We may 
conclude therefore that photograph No. 15 is a good representation of 
interest. 































128 



180 ( 16 ) 


worry .... 

. 10 

Judgments, 
indecision ... 2 

pensiveness . . . 

1 

displeasure . . 

. 8 

attention .... 3 

repugnance . . . 

1 

suspicion . . . 

. 6 

annoyance . . .3 

determination . . 

1 

dislike .... 

. 6 

distress .... 1 

amazement . . . 

1 

irritation . . . 

. 6 

calculation ... 1 

nervousness . . . 

1 

thought . . . 

. 6 

impatience ... 1 

disapproval . . . 

1 

dread .... 

. 5 

meditation .... 1 

anger Ss surprise . 

1 

anxiety . . . 

. 5 

awe.1 

pained regret . . 

1 

fear. 

. 4 

puzzled ... i 

desire. 

1 

doubt .... 

. 3 

perplexity.... 2 

disturbance . . . 

1 

aversion . . . 

. 2 

firmness .... 1 

bitterness.... 

1 

mental suffering 

. 2 

daring .... 1 

anxious incredulity 

1 

indignation . . 

. 2 

anxious alarm . . 1 

pained interest . . 

l 

anger .... 

. 2 

alarm.l 




CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 
20°/ 0 suspicion (6) or synonyms. 

12% attention and thought. 

5% self-assertiveness. 

20°/o anxiety and fear. 

44°/ 0 worry and irritation. 

1 % desire. 


This photograph represents suspicion of a greater intensity than in 
photograph No. 83. This greater intensity consisting in a higher degree 
of anxiety and fear has apparently led a great number of observers to 
give this important element or quality of the emotion, rather than the 
emotion itself. Thus, we have only 20 judgments of suspicion as 
against 46% in photograph No. 83, and as many as 64 judgments 
of anxiety and fear as against only 37% on the other photo. We 
should be justified in accepting this photograph as the representation 
of suspicion accompanied with worry, the latter being the most frequently 
given judgment (10). 














— 129 



282 , 17 ) 


Judgments. 


reverence .23 

religious.22 

religious hope.1 

religious love.6 

religious calm.1 

religious devotion.2 

trust.8 

trust yet somewhat anxious 

prayer.1 

faith.8 

altruistic love.3 

rapture . 1 

Heavenly trust.1 

religious love & earnestness . 1 

spiritual ecstasy.1 


prayer of despair.1 

forgiveness.1 

yearning.1 

relief.1 

posing.1 

prayer.4 

pleading.l 

sadness.l 

hopeful.2 

belief. \ . 1 

piety.2 

meditation.1 

earnestness . 1 

devotion.2 

awe.1 


CONCLUSION: 98% give terms naming religious feelings as their 
judgment; 32 of which actually use the word religious, either alone, 
or as a modifier with a noun, and 10 naming love, religious or altruistic. 
We may therefore conclude that photograph No. 17 is a typical representation 
of a religious feeling tinged with love. 


feelings and Emotions. 


10 

























130 


Photograph 
No. 18. 

Posed for suspicion. 


fear. 

17 

288 (18) 

Judgments, 
defiance .... 

3 

The despair of hate 

1 

dread . 

9 

displeasure . . . 

2 

hate. 

1 

aversion . . . . 

6 

worried .... 

2 

self-abasement . . 

1 

anxiety . . . . 

5 

disgust. 

2 

invitation .... 

1 

repugnance . . . 

5 

loathing .... 

2 

terror . 

1 

rage. 

4 

alarm. 

2 

grief. 

1 

suspicion . . . 

4 

alarm 8? fear . . 

1 

sneaking .... 

1 

suspicion & fear . 

1 

fright. 

2 

physical suffering . 

1 

suspicion & fear 

1 

antipathy .... 

1 

coquetry .... 

1 

and annoyance . 

anger . 

1 

eagerness .... 

1 

suspicion & scorn . 

1 

interest .... 

1 

dismay. 

1 

suspicion & distrust 

1 

want of interest . 

1 

dislike. 

t 

annoyance . . . 

3 

indecision. . . . 

1 

distraction . . . 

1 

bitterness.... 

3 

unpleasant discovery 1 

expectancy of some 

horror. 

3 

scorn . 

1 

coming disaster. 

1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 

10°/o suspicion (8) and synonyms. 
l°/o thought. 
l°/o self-abasement. 

5% self-assertion. 

62°/ 0 anxiety, fear and synonyms. 

21°/o worry, irritation and synonyms. 

Only 10 l 0 name the photograph suspicion; the others give the* 
important characteristics of suspicion. In other words, some saw the 
fundamental state while others saw important el'ements; a few saw both 
as it will appear from the judgments suspicion and fear (1), suspicion 
and annoyance (1), suspicion and scorn (1), and suspicion and 
distrust (1). Anxiety and fear with synonymous terms have the greatest 
percentage (t)2), and is almost 3 times the number of judgments giving worry 
and synonyms. In other words, there is a general concensus in ascribing fear 
which is a synonym of suspicion to the expression of the photograph. We 
are justified therefore in accepting this photograph as a representation of 
suspicion of a very high degree, say suspicion accompanied with fear. 











131 


Photograph 
No. 19. 

Posed for perplexity 
and suspicion. 



287 ( 19 ) 


Judgments. 


mental suffering . 1 

mental suffering 
and inquiry . . 2 

thoughtful ... 1 

terror. 1 

hate. 1 

Want of attention 1 
caught with the 

goods. 1 

Doubt & perplexity l 
calculation ... 1 

astonished ... 1 

determination . . l 

disturbance ... 1 

critical .... 1 

self-abasement . l 
sincerity .... 1 

interest .... 1 


17 V 2 0 /o suspicion or fear. 

13% perplexity and worry. 

207 o expectancy (5), attention (3), reflection, etc. 

2 1 / 2 °/o determination. 

3°/ 0 want of interest, self-abasement, caught with the goods. 
5 °/o friendliness, interest etc. 

Thus 69 V 2 have seen either all or some of the important elements 
of the complex" emotion: perplexity and suspicion (displeasure being 
a characteristic of both). 


displeasure . 

. . 7 

surprise .... 

2 

suspicion . . 

. . 4 

coquettish surprise 

1 

Resolution as a 

antipathy .... 

2 

result of 

sus- 

reflection .... 

2 

picion . . 

. . 1 

fear. 

2 

Expectancy . 

. . 5 

repugnance . . . 

2 

irritation . . 

. . 6 

puzzled .... 

2 

anger . . . 

. . 4 

scorn . 

1 

annoyance . 

. . 4 

hardness .... 

1 

perplexity 

. . 3 

uncertainty . . . 

1 

dislike. . . 

. . 3 

indecision . . . 

1 

attention . . 

. . 3 

wonder .... 

1 

doubt . . . 

. . 3 

loathing .... 

1 

worry . . . 

. . 3 

sternness .... 

1 

dread . . . 

. . 3 

timidity .... 

1 

defiance . . 

. . 2 

anxiety .... 

1 

pondering 

. . 2 

eagerness . . . 

1 

aversion . . 

. . 2 

earnestness . . . 

1 

contempt . . 

. . 3 

friendliness . . . 

1 

CONCLUSION: 

The judgments may be arranged 


10* 












132 





284 (20) 





J u d g m e n t s. 



Love (relegious) 

. 8 

faith. 

3 

willing submission 

Love (romantic) 

. 3 

longing .... 

3 

devotion . . . . 

Love .... 

. 4 

happiness. . . . 

3 

reflection . . . . 

Love (altruistic) 

. 1 

amusement . . . 

3 

anticipation . . . 

Reverence . . 

. 7 

expectancy . . . 

2 

pleased interest 

bliss .... 

. 6 

joyful contemplation 


appreciation . . . 

admiration . . 

. 6 

of heaven . . . 

1 

thankful . . . . 

pleasure . . . 

. 5 

awe. 

2 

passion . . . . 

aspiration. . . 

. 4 

desire. 

2 

tender. 

religious . . . 

. 3 

thoughtfulness . . 

2 

adoration .... 

religious hope . 

. 1 

resignation . . . 

1 

gladness . . . . 

hope .... 

. 3 

yearning .... 

1 

relief. 

joy ... .^ . 

. 3 

attention .... 

1 

enjoyment . . . 

inspiration . . 

. 3 

trust . 

1 

romantic . . . . 

rapture. . . . 

. 3 

aestheticappreciation 1 



CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 
39% give religious feelings as their judgments. 

9% love. 

48% pleasure. 

4% thought and attention. 

Thus 96% have seen either all or some of the elements of religious 
love (the most frequently given judgment, 8). We may therefore conclude 
that photograph No. 20 is an adequate representation of religious love. 















133 


Photograph 
No. 21. 


Posed for interest. 


(Listening with great 
interest to a child 
relating a story.) 




290 (21) 






Judgments. 




interest . . 

. . 21 

pleasure .... 

2 

friendship . . . 

1 

amused interest . 22 

cheerfulness . . . 

2 

vanity. 

1 

tenderness . 

. . 10 

smiling .... 

2 

attentiveness & long. 

1 

amusement . 

. . 8 

coyness .... 

2 

superiority . . . 

1 

sympathy. . 

. . 5 

surprise .... 

2 

earnestness . . . 

1 

friendly . . 

. . 2 

altruistic love . . 

1 

purity. 

l 

liking . . . 

. . 5 

want of interest . 

1 

expectancy . . . 

.2 

friendliness . 

. . 4 

intentness . . . 

1 

timidity .... 

1 

meditation . 

. . 4 

admiration . . . 

1 

mother love . . . 

1 

attention . . 

. . 4 

calculation . . . 

1 

cordial gentility . 

1 

modesty . . 

. . 3 

sympathetic interest 

1 

approval .... 

1 

romantic love 

. . 2 

interested reflection 

1 

kind & sympathetic 

1 

CONCLUSION: 

The judgments may be arranged 

in the following groups: 


38°/o interest (23) or synonyms. 

34% tenderness (10) or synonyms. 

17% pleasure. 

7% self-abasement. 

2 % surprise. 

2 % contradictory. 

38% give as their judgment interest (23) or synonyms, thus 
bringing out the essential character of the expression. The 34 who give 
tenderness ( 10 ) or synonyms as their judgment have seen the important 
modifying quality of the interest as represented in this photo. (Listening 
with great interest to a child relating a story.) 17% give another important 
element of the interest involved here by giving pleasurable feelings as 
their judgment. We may, therefore, accept this photograph as interest 
tinged with tenderness. 










134 


Photograph 
No. 22. 

Posed for agreeable 
surprise. 


surprise. 

... 52 

enthusiasm. 

1 

wonder. 

... 12 

friendliness. 

1 

astonishment . . . 

... 10 

hope. 

1 

amazement .... 

... 9 

earnestness . 

1 

admiration .... 

... 3 

romantic love. 

1 

awe.. . 

... 2 

maternal pretended astonish¬ 


dismay. 

... 2 

ment . 

1 

rapture. 

... l 

altruistic pride. 

1 

playful interest . . 

... 1 

repugnance . 

1 


CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgment is surprise 
(52 times), 10 % are words denoting some degree of pleasure, 35 % are 
neutral terms with regard to it; 3% are contradictory. We may, therefore, 
consider photograph No. 22 as a typical representation of surprise tinged 
with pleasure. ( 6 ) 



289 ( 22 ) 

Judgments. 



















135 


Photograph 
No. 23. 

Posed tor shrugging 
the shoulders. 



292 ( 23 ) 


(In answer to „Well, 
what are you going 
to do about it?”) 


indifference ... 18 
pretented „ ... 2 
Want of interest . 11 

doubt.9 

W I don’t care” . . 4 

resignation ... 4 
contempt .*... 4 
suspicion .... 3 

bore.3 

„I should worry” . 3 
unconcernedness . 2 

coquetry .... 2 

shrugging ... 2 

defiance .... 2 
supercilious ... 1 

incredulity ... 1 


Judgments. 


quizzical acquie¬ 
scence . . . . 1 

pity. 1 

Take the alternative 1 
Sour grape attitude 1 
What do I care . l 

scorn. 1 

merriment . . . 1 

haughtiness . . . 1 

relief. 1 

hopelessness . . l 
reflection .... 1 

thought . . . . 1 

expectancy . . . 1 

coyness .... 1 


love. 1 

dismay . . . . 1 

indecision . . . 1 

uncertainty . . . 1 

„ & dismay . 1 

ignorance. . . . 1 

irresolution . . . 1 

tantalizing spirit . 1 

Do as you like . . 1 

I don’t know . . I 

conceit. 1 

hope (but not sure) 1 
expression . . . 1 

wonder . . . . 1 

Unable to explain . 1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 

54% give indifference (21) want of interest(ll) or synonyms. 

18% „ doubt, suspicion or synonyms. 

12 % „ contempt „ „ 

8 % „ tender emotions „ „ 

7% „ resignation & thought. 

54 % give indifference (the most frequently given judgment, 21 times) 
or synonyms; and 12% contempt or its synonyms. (A smile of in¬ 
difference may easily be taken as one of contempt.) We may theretore say 
that indifference is the expression represented in photo No. 23 which was 
posed for „shrugging the shoulders”. It is interesting to note here that two 
individuals have actually named the expression as shrugging the shoulders. 











136 




161 (24) 



J u d g 

m e n t s. 


amusement . . . 

.... 14 

pleased admiration . . 

. . 1 

happiness . . . 

.... 13 

linking. 

. . 1 

pleasure .... 

.... 13 

glad to see you . . . 

. . 1 

merriment . . . 

.... 10 

glee. 

. . 1 

joy. 

.... 9 

enjoyment. 

. . 1 

laughter .... 

.... 8 

willingness ..... 

. . 1 

delight .... 

.... 6 

bliss .. 

. . 1 

smiling .... 

.... 5 

coquetry. 

. . 1 

cheerfulness . . . 

.... 4 

rapture. 

. . 1 

gladness .... 

.... 2 

ecstasy. 

1 

friendliness . . . 

.... 2 

happy welcome . . . 

. . 1 

pleasant interest . 
appreciation . . . 

. ... 1 

.... 1 

playful smiling . . . 

. . 1 


CONCLUSION: 100°/o ascribe to the photo a moderate degree of 
pleasure. As the most frequently given judgments are amusement 
(14 times), pleasure (13 times), happiness (13 times), we may accept 
the photograph as a representation of amusement, happiness, or pleasure, 
emotions very closely related and in certain aspects almost interchangeable, 
emotions, too, which find their expression in smiling for which A. f. 
has posed. 


















137 



162 ( 25 ) 


expectancy ... 8 
anxious expectancy 1 
thought .... 5 

earnestness ... 5 
anxiety .... 7 

faith. 5 

interest .... 5 
attention .... 4 

fear. 3 

anxiety & annoyance 3 

doubt. 3 

uncertainty ... 3 
puzzled .... 2 
wonder .... 2 

meditation ... 2 

sorrow. 2 


Judgments. 


psychic .... 2 

questioning wonder 2 
hopefulness ... 2 

hope. 2 

displeasure ... 2 

yearning .... 2 

dread. 2 

bore.2 

worry. 2 

fear & mental 
suffering .... 1 

timidity . . . . 1 

dismay . . . . 1 

aspiration . . . 1 

inspiration ... 1 

despair . . . . 1 


mental suffering . 1 

sadness . . . . 1 
apprehension . . 1 

perplexity . . . 1 

longing meditation 1 
reverence .... 1 
nervous anticipation 1 
contemplation . . 1 

contemplation with 
interest . . . . 1 

pleasant calculation 1 
curiosity . ... 1 
watching with calcu¬ 
lation .... 1 

Feeling of something 
unpleasant up high 1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups 

thought ' 25 “ /o th 0 U S ht 

^ I 18 °/ 0 expectancy, interest & attention. 

anxious \ 25% anxiety & fear 
feelings j 9% doubt and uncertainty 

15 % faith (5) hope (4) reverence, yearning, desire. 

8 % unpleasant states. 

The groups given above may be further generalized as terms relating 
to thought 43%, terms expressing anxious feelings 34%. These two 
groups bring out the two important elements of the expression, anxiety 
and thought or anxious thought, 15% have seen a subtle but important 
quality of this anxious thought as is evidenced by their judgments which 
may be grouped together as religious yearning. The compound judgment 
may therefore be considered to be anxious thought tinged with religious 
faith, which would correspond to the expression „In search of truth (7).” 











138 


Photograph 
No. 26. 


Posed 

for meditation. 



163 ( 26 ) 


Judgments. 


reflection.21 

modest reflection.2 

thought.18 

meditation.16 

modesty.4 

attention.4 

want of interest.3 

calculation.3 

humility.2 

resignation.2 

tenderness.2 

pity. 2 

contemplation.2 

intentness . 2 

expectancy.1 

reverence.1 


sorrow..1 

concentration.1 

fear.1 

unconcernedness . 1 

despondency . 1 

longing.1 

anxiety.1 

resolution.1 

attention & interest .... 1 

calmness.1 

earnestness . 1 

thinking.1 

self-abasement.1 

sadness . 1 

pensive.1 


CONCLUSION: 74% give meditation or its synonyms. 

10% „ modesty, humility, self-abasement. 

6% „ tenderness or synonyms. 

5% „ sorrow, sadness, fear, anxiety. 

4% „ want of interest. 

1% „ resolution. 


The majority have seen meditation or synonyms. Modesty, 
tenderness, and sorrow, given as judgments by 21 of the observers, 
are qualities which may accompany meditation. 

































139 


Photograph 
No. 27. 

Posed by A. F. for 
„thinking out a 
problem just after 
giving expression to 
a series of altruistic 
emotions.” 

164 ( 27 ) 


Judgments. 


thought . 

. . 14 

hope . 

. . 1 

reflection. 

. . 8 

sadness . 

. . 1 

interest . 

. . 8 

resolution. 

. . 1 

meditation. 

. . 8 

aspiration. 

. . 1 

attention. 

. . 6 

admiration. 

. . 1 

resignation. 

. . 5 

religious love .... 

. . 1 

yearning. 

. . 5 

reverence . 

. . 1 

trust . 

. . 5 

friendliness . . . • . 

. . 1 

calculation. 

. . 4 

determined. 

. . 1 

longing. 

. . 3 

wonder. 

. . 1 

contemplation .... 

. . 3 

sneering. 

. . 1 

desire. 

. . 2 

sympathy. 

. . 1 

dreamy. 

2 

humility. 

. . 1 

religious.. 

. . 2 

earnestness . . . . 

. . 1 

faith. 

. . 2 

^sizing up”. 

. . 1 

submission. 

. . 2 

intense application . . 

. . 1 

lack of interest . . . 

. . 2 

pity ....... 

. . 1 

reflection & anxiety . . 

. . 1 

concentration .... 

. . 1 

CONCLUSION: 

53°/o give thought. 



10°/o „ 

yearning. 



24% „ 

religious feelings. 



3% „ 

sympathy & pity. 



58°/o give terms of thought, and bring out the main characteristic ex¬ 
pression, 24°/o have seen religious feelings, 10°/o yearning, 3°/o sympathy 
and pity, thus establishing the religious altruistic nature of the thought 


involved. 






























140 



16S (28) 


Judgments. 


worry. 

annoyance . . . 
anxiety . . . . 

irritation . . . . 

dislike. 

pity. 

calculation . . . 

interest . . . . 

sympathy.... 
mental suffering . 
aversion . . . . 

thought . . . . 

unpleasant thought 
displeasure . . . 

bore. 

worried reflection . 
sympathetic „ . . 


8 

anger .... 

. 2 

grief ..... 

1 

7 

earnestness . . 

. 2 

sternness .... 

1 

6 

haughtiness . . 

. 2 

righteous sternness 

1 

5 

horror .... 

. 2 

pained. 

1 

5 

contempt . . . 

. 1 

inquisitiveness . . 

1 

4 

ire. 

1 

concentration . . 

1 

4 

puzzled . . . 

. 1 

repulsion .... 

1 

4 

yearning . . . 

. 1 

wonder .... 

1 

3 

pride .... 

l 

fretting .... 

1 

3 

sadness . . . 

. 1 

fear or suffering . 

1 

3 

ugliness . . . 

l 

distress .... 

1 

3 

distraction . . 

. 1 

coquetry .... 

1 

1 

altruistic love . 

. 1 

baffled interest 

1 

2 

desire .... 

. 1 

timidity .... 

1 

2 

suspicion . . . 

. l 

cynicism .... 

1 

2 

bewilderment . 

. 1 

uncertainty . . . 

1 

1 

expectancy . . 

. 1 




CONCLUSION: 47% give worry, annoyance, anxiety or synonyms. 
11% „ pity, sympathy and related terms. 

22% „ dislike and contempt „ „ 

19% „ thought and interest. 

The majority judge this photograph as having the expression of 
worry, annoyance, or the like (47), thus indicating the essential qualities 
of sympathy; the 11 who give terms of pity and sympathy have come 
still closer to naming the emotion portrayed, 19 who express their 
judgment as that of interest have merely named a quality of sympathy. 
As to the 22% who give terms of dislike and contempt, their judgment 
would confirm the social factor of sympathy as containing, along with 
a suffering with the person compassioned, a dislike for the person or 
object responsible for the suffering. 













141 


Photograph 
No. 29. 

Posed for Pity 
(poor thing). 


tenderness ... 18 
sympathy.... 14 
coyness .... 11 

pity.10 

coquetry .... 5 

cajolery .... 4 

coaxing .... 3 

pleading .... 2 
friendliness ... 2 

comforting a child 2 
chiding .... 2 

longing .... 2 

soothing capability 2 
CONCLUSION: 68% tenderness (18), sympathy (14), pity (10) or synonyms. 

22% self-abasement. 

7% pleasurable states. 

3% chiding, suspicion. 

The most frequently given judgment is tenderness (18) together 
with its synonyms as sympathy (14), pity (10), etc.: total 68%. The 
22 judgments of self-abasement and the 7 of pleasurable feelings, 
only name characteristics of tenderness. Tenderness is a general term 
including both sympathy and pity. Sympathy, according to the modern 
definition of the term is a suffering with a person with whom we identify 
ourselves for the time being, while pity is compassion for a person whom 
we consider inferior to ourselves. It will be seen then that sympathy 
implies more suffering than pity does, and since in photograph No. 29 
there are no judgments of suffering at all whereas there are quite a number 
of them in the case of photographs No. 28 and No. 48, we may say that 
this photograph is a representation of a tenderness of a kind amounting 
to pity rather than sympathy. A comparison of the judgments of photo¬ 
graphs No. 28, 29, 48 will give us the fine distinction between sympathy 
and pity. 



167 (29) 


Judgments. 


persuasion . . . 

sympathy for weak 
object . . 

love . . . 

altruistic love 
maternal „ 
modesty . 
reproach . 
gladness . 
vanity . . 

inimical . 
entertaining an idea 
playfully didactic . 


2 condolence ... 1 

pleasurable surprise 1 

1 pleasant discovery. 1 

1 amused & astonished 1 

l entreating in a ca- 

1 joling manner . 1 

1 playful sympathy . 1 

l fondness for some- 

1 thing inferior . 1 

l liking.1 

1 worry relieved . . l 

1 suspicion .... 1 

1 











142 



interest .... 14 
smiling .... 10 
attention .... 7 

friendliness ... 5 
pleasure .... 5 
cheerfulness ... 5 
want of interest . 5 

gladness .... 4 

liking.3 

calmness .... 3 
amusement ... 3 
wonder .... 2 

bliss.2 

expectancy ... 2 


Judgments. 


love (romantic) . 2 

tenderness ... 2 

posing.2 

yearning .... 2 

hesitation ... 2 

energy (1 intend to 
do that) . . . 1 

agreeableness . . 1 

contentment ... 1 

earnestness . . . 1 

hopefulness . . . 1 

frankness.... 1 

wholesomeness . 1 

reflection . . . . 1 


faith.1 

listening . . . . 1 

pleased expectancy 1 

haughtiness . . . 1 

bore.l 

calculation . . . 1 

wistfulness . . . l 

perplexity . . . 1 

resignation . . . 1 

self-satisfaction . 1 

complacency. . . 1 

nothing . . . . 1 


CONCLUSION: Of the 100 individual judgments, 63% agree on terms 
naming some degree of pleasurable states, 28% give neutral terms, and 
9% contradictory ones. The most frequently given judgment is „interest’' 
(14 times), a judgment which expresses a pleasurable emotion. Smiling 
(given 10 times) is an expression of a like emotion. Hence we may 
conclude that the expression in photograph No. 30 is that of interest 
(given 14 times). And that the outward expression of interest is smiling 
(given 10 times). 










143 



determination . . 23 
firmness . . . 
displeasure . . 

anger .... 
resolution. . . 

defiance . . . 

hardness . . . 

worry .... 
sternness . . • 

laughter . . . 

disapproval . . 

indignation . . 

scorn .... 

CONCLUSION 


158 (31) 

Judgments, 
firm controlled anger 1 


distaste . . . . 1 

dislike.1 

stubbornness . . 1 

bitterness ... 5 
determination 8s hat¬ 
red .1 

rage.1 

self-assertion . . 1 

slight contempt . 1 

mental suffering . 1 

fright.1 

pondering . . . 1 


bore.1 

jealousy . . . . 1 

calculation . . . 1 

emphatic . . . . 1 

deep thought . . 1 

perplexity as whether 
or not to smile . 1 

assertion of will 
power . . . . 1 

hate.1 

revengeful . . . 1 

irritation . . . . 1 


52% determination or synonyms. 

41°/o displeasure, anger or „ 

4°/o laughter, perplexity as whether or not to laugh. 
3% thought. 


8 

8 

7 

6 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 


52% give determination (or synonyms). The 41% that have seen 
displeasure (8) anger (7) or synonyms, were very likely misled by the 
contracted brow which is characteristic of determined expression. We may 
therefore, say that photograph No. 31 is a good representation of deter¬ 
mination (the most frequently given judgment). 














144 



anger.9 

(^righteous angerl) 

worry.8 

anxiety .... 7 
displeasure ... 4 

dislike.4 

dismay .... 4 
invitation .... 4 
thought .... 4 

alarm.3 

suspicion .... 2 

calculation ... 2 

puzzled .... 2 

astonishment . . 2 

amazement ... 2 

surprise .... 2 

annoyance ... 2 


Judgments. 


perplexity ... 2 

awe.2 

resolution ... 2 

alarm due to annoy¬ 
ance .1 

attention .... 2 

expectancy ... 2 

hope.2 

hardness .... 2 
trouble . . . . i 

antipathy . . . . 1 

dissatisfaction . . 1 

fear.1 

bore.1 

indignation . . . 1 

firm disagreeing . 1 

expecting a calamity 1 


annoyed expectancy 1 

dread.1 

consternation . . 1 

despondent . . . 1 

mental suffering . 1 

nothing . . . . 1 

frowning . . . . 1 

sympathy. . . . 1 

incredulity . . . 1 

doubt.1 

defiance . . . . 1 

distraction . . . l 

contempt . . . . 1 

mildly horrified . 1 

anguish . . . . 1 

„I wonder what will 
become of him” 1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 
20°/ o give anger (9) or synonyms. 


52°/o „ 

worry (8), anxiety (7) or synonyms, 

12°/ 0 „ 

thought or synonyms. 

8°/o jj 

surprise, awe, or synonyms. 

5°/o „ 

resolution or synonyms. 

l°/o „ 

. sympathy. 

l°/o „ 

contempt. 

l°/o „ 

nothing. 


20°/ o give anger (9) or its synonyms. It may be that the 52°/ 0 who give terms of 
worry and anxiety do not contradict, as it might seem on first thought, the judgment 
of the first 20, but have seen only part of the elements or characteristics of righteous 
anger. The same may be sard of thought and the remaining judgments with the 
exception of two (contempt and nothing). We may conclude therefore that photograph 
No. 32 is a good representation of righteous anger since 98°/ 0 have seen all or some 
of its elements. It is interesting to note that one individuall actually used the phrase, 
righteous anger. 












145 


Photograph 
No. 33. 


Posed for extreme 
horror. 



(A child is being 
run over and ground 
to pieces by a car.) 


160 (33) 


horror . 

J u d g 

.... 32 

m e n t s. 

horror & disgust . 

1 

terror . 

.... 13 

horror & amazement .... 

1 

fury . 

.... 9 

horror & dismay . 

1 

fright . 

.... 6 

defiance 8^ horror . 

1 

physical pain . . 

.... 5 

fear 8; astonishment .... 

i 

JL 

amazement . . . 

.... 4 

dismay . 

1 

rage . 

.... 4 

anger . 

1 

alarm . 

.... 3 

passion . 

1 

horror & fear . . 

.... 3 

frenzy . . .. 

1 

fright & aversion . 

.... 2 

angry defiance . 

1 

fear . 

.... 2 

awe . 

1 

surprise . . . . 

.... 2 

dread . 

1 

pain . 

.... 2 

nothing . 

1 

CONCLUSION: 

99°/o give as their judgment either horror (32), 

or 

related terms, l°/o 

gives nothing, 

. We may therefore conclude that 


photograph No. 33 is a typical representation of horror. ( 9 ) 


Feelings and Emotions. 


11 































146 



165 (34) 


thought .... 12 
reflection .... 10 
modesty .... 10 
humility .... 7 

meditation ... 5 
calculation ... 5 

suspicion .... 5 

reproof .... 3 
reproach .... 2 
interest .... 2 

displeasure ... 2 

pity. 2 

meditation and self- 
assertion . . . 1 

contemplation . . 1 

disagree & attention 1 
doubt.1 


Judgments. 


desire.1 

longing . . . . 1 

pensiveness . . . 1 

love.1 

pouting . . . . 1 

faith.1 

dislike.1 

self-abasement . . 1 

close attention . . 1 

puzzled . . . . 1 

shocked . . . . 1 

disappointment. . 1 

trust.1 

sympathy . ... 1 

lack of confidence 1 
meditation sub¬ 
mission . . . 1 


looking askance . 1 

loathing . ... 1 

spying on another 1 
light contempt . . 1 

suspicion & mental 
suffering . . . 1 

earnestness . . . 1 

distrust . . . . 1 

Not quite hope¬ 
lessness . . . 1 

uncertainty . . . 1 

expectancy . . . 1 

feeling hurt . . . 1 

defiance . . . . 1 

sorrow . . . . 1 

assent . 1 

tenderness . . . 1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 
57°/o thought and closely related terms. 

24% self-abasement. 

12% displeasure and kindred words. 

7% pity-sympathy & „ „ 


57% have noted the main characteristic of the expression when they 
judged it to be thought or synonyms; 24 modified the characterization 
of this by adding self-abasement; and self-abasement is an important 
characteristic in all altruistic thought. 12% use terms of displeasure, 
indicating that they have perceived the unpleasant tone which tinges 
any effort to solve a problem. The 7 observers, the smallest group, 
have seen the subtle but important quality, of altruistic thought involved 
in „thinking how to help some one” when they gave sympathy or its 
synonyms as their judgment. 













147 



Judgments. 


horror. 

... 34 

horror and dismay . . . 

. 1 

terror . 

... 10 

„ „ fear .... 

. 1 

rage. 

... 9 

„ „ amazement . . 

. 1 

fright. 

... 6 

» » awe. 

. 1 

alarm. 

. . . 5 

enthusiasm. 

. 1 

fury. 

... 4 

great indignation. 

. 1 

repugnance .... 

... 3 

intense fear . 

. 1 

physical pain . . . 

... 3 

madness. 

. 1 

amazement . . . . 

... 3 

decided boredom. 

. 1 

astonishment . . . 

... 2 

curiosity & safety. . . . 

. 1 

passion. 

... 2 

indignant. 

. 1 

disgust. 

... 2 

distraction. 

. 1 

outrage. 

... 1 

bitterness. 

. 1 

anger. 

... 1 

anguish. 

. 1 


hate & contempt.1 


CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgment is horror 
(34 times), and synonyms, a total of 98%: 2% give enthusiasm, 
curiosity and safety. We may therefore, accept photo No. 35 as a 
typical representation of horror. 


n* 































148 



143 (36) 


Photograph 
No. 36. 

Posed for sharp 
physical pain. 


physical suffering, 20 
irritation .... 20 
disgust .... 7 
annoyance ... 6 

anger.5 

despair .... 4 

fury.4 

perplexity ... 4 
sharp physical pain 2 
physical pain . . 2 

hate.2 

rage.2 


Judgments. 


difficult problem . 2 

passion .... 2 

uneasy . . . . 1 

outward stimulus 
as by the Sun . 1 

severe mental 

annoyance . . 1 

bore.1 

despondency . . 1 

torture . ... 1 

dislike.1 

ugliness . . . . 1 


scorn.1 

calculation . . . 1 

impatience . . . 1 

antipathy . . . . 1 

spiteful . . . . 1 

physical irritation • 1 

repugnance . . . 1 

distraction . . . 1 

displeasure . . . 1 

assertion & deter¬ 
mination . . . 1 


CONCLUSION: 57% physical suffering (26) or synonyms. 

18% disgust, annoyance or synonyms. 

24% anger, despair or synonyms. 

1% calculation. 

% 

57% use terms expressing physical suffering the remaining judgments 
except one (calculation) name emotions that are characterized by unpleasant 
feelings. The most commonly given judgment is physical suffering 
or pain (26). This fact together with the circumstances discussed above 
would seem to justify the acceptance of this photograph as the 
representation of sharp physical pain. It is interesting to note that 
two observers actually use the words „sharp physical pain”. 












149 


Photograph 
No. 37. 


Posed for a sick 
feeling after the 
abatement of 
physical suffering. 



144 (37) 


Judgments. 


mental suffering . 

16 

resignation . 

2 

sorrow & repentance 

1 

physical suffering. 

15 

relief . . . 

. . 2 

calmness .... 

1 

worry. 

12 

distress . . 

. . 2 

bore . . . . . 

1 

pain. 

7 

anxiety . . 

. . 1 

helplessness & hope 

1 

despair . . . . 

6 

meditation . 

. . 1 

pensive mood . , 

1 

headache .... 

5 

tenderness . 

. . 1 

pity. 

1 

grief. 

3 

fatigue . . 

. . 1 

bewilderment . . 

1 

despondency . . 

3 

humility . . 

. . 1 

exhaustion from 


weariness . . . 

2 

fear.... 

. . 1 

pain. 

1 

dull physical pain 

2 

hope . . * 

. . 1 

introspection 

1 

thought . . . . 

2 

yearning . . 

. . 1 

trouble .... 

1 

sadness . . . . 

2 

hopelessness 

. . 1 




CONCLUSION: 47% physical suffering or synonyms. 

30% worry despair or synonyms. 

8% grief, despondency. 

6% thought. 

3% self-abasement. 

3% tenderness. 

3% hope and relief. 

The most frequently given judgment is physical suffering (17), 
the next in order of frequency is mental suffering (16). If we add 
the synonyms of both (including terms of worry and despair, 30 times, 
and words of grief and despondency, 8 times), we get 85%. It is inter¬ 
esting to note besides, that headache appears 5 times and exhaustion 
from pain, — once. We should seem to be justified in concluding that 
photograph No. 37 is a representation of some kind of sick feeling. 











150 


Photograph 
No. 38. 

Posed for physical 
suffering. 


273 (38) 



Judgment s. 


physical suffering.25 

mental suffering.16 

worry.8 

pain.6 

anxiety.6 

physical pain.5 

disgust.2 

despondency . 2 

bitterness........ 2 

suffering.2 

feigned suffering.1 

distraction of sorrow ... 1 

trouble.1 

fright.1 

dread.1 

distraught.1 

annoyance . 1 

mental struggle.1 


worn out physical pain . . 1 

dread & physical suffering . 1 

worry and despondency . . 1 

grief.1 


awe.1 

perplexity.1 

agony.1 

dismay.1 

nausea.1 

bore.1 

meditation.1 

introspection.1 

hopelessness.1 


fear of being told something 1 
exhaustion.1 


wonder.1 

want of interest.1 



CONCLUSION: 59% give physical suffering (the most frequently 
given judgment, 25), or synonyms; 35% worry, anxiety or synonyms; 
4% awe, meditation or synonyms, 2% disgust. 

We may therefore accept photograph No. 38 as an adequate repre- 

atinn nf nVn/cir'cU cufforirirr 


sentation of physical suffering. 


































151 



Judgments. 


pleasure ........ 11 

smiling.10 

friendliness ...... 10 

attention.10 

liking.6 

calmness.6 

pleasantness.5 

interest . 4 

faith.2 

beauty.2 

doubtful smile.2 

thought ........ 2 

happy resignation.2 

tenderness.2 

serene contentment .... 2 

love altruistic.2 

pleasant disposition .... 2 

happiness.2 


cheerfulness.2 

pleased hope ..1 

sweetness.1 

coyness . . *.1 

romantic love.1 

frankness.1 

enthusiasm.1 

bored.1 

vanity.1 

sympathy.1 

self-conscious.1 

playfulness.1 

plaudit.1 

patience.1 

satisfaction.1 

admiration.1 

amusement ....... 1 


CONCLUSION: 48°/o pleasure (11) or its synonyms. 

27°/o friendliness (10) „ „ 

24% attention (10) „ „ 

1% bored. 

The nature of the judgments given as indicated in the grouping 
above would show at once that the expression was on the whole judged 
to be that of pleasurable attention with the element of pleasure very 
strongly marked. 

































Photograph 
No. 40. 

Posed for smiling 1°. 



132 (40) 


Judgments. 


smiling ..19 

pleasure.. 12 

gladness.8 

happiness.8 

cheerfulness.- . 8 

friendliness.5 

amusement.4 

delight.4 

joy.3 

merriment.3 

enthusiasm.2 

pleasantness.2 

pleased attention.2 

liking ..2 

love (altruistic).1 

bored.1 


enjoyment.1 

friendly smiling.1 

friendly attention.1 

yearning.1 

frank laughter.1 

interest . 1 

affection.1 

humorous.. . 1 

pain.1 

passion.1 

amusement & pleasure . . . 1 

jollity.1 

longing.1 

resignation.1 

pleased contentment.... 1 

eagerness.1 


CONCLUSION: 98% use words denoting some degree of pleasure; 
2% give contradictory terms (pain) (1), bore (1). 

The word most frequently given is smiling (19 times), a characteristic 
expression of pleasurable emotions. This corresponds with the intention 
of the pose. Hence we may conclude that photograph No. 40 is a typical 
representation of smiling. 
































153 


Photograph 
No. 41. 


Posed 

for Perplexity. 


(Too tired or 
exhausted to think 
out another thing.) 


130 ( 41 ) 



mental suffering . 17 
physical suffering. 13 


perplexity ... 10 

worry.9 

pain.7 

reflection .... 4 

thought .... 4 

sorrow .... 3 
feigned mental 

suffering ... 2 

despondency . .2 

calculation ... 2 


Judgments. 

annoyance ... 2 

distraction ... 2 

strong mental 
trouble .... 2 

remorse .... 2 

grief.1 

disgrumpled . . . 1 

annoyance ... 2 

„ & anxiety 1 

trying to remember 
something . . 1 

vexation . ... 1 


tenderness or 

pity 1 

resignation . 

. . 1 

displeasure . 

. . 1 

sadness . . 

. . 1 

headache . . 

. . 1 

nothing . . 

. . 1 

worried thought . 1 

puzzlement . 

. . 1 

bewilderment 

. . 1 

suspicion . . 

. . 1 

invitation. . 

. . 1 

troubled . . 

. . 1 


CONCLUSION: 49% suffering (17) or synonyms. 

38% perplexity (10), worry (9) or synonyms. 
ll°/o reflection (4), thought (4) or synonyms. 

2% resignation (1), nothing (1). 

Altho more observers give their judgment as suffering or synonyms 
(49%) than as perplexity and worry (38%), we must take into 
consideration the fact that the former is but a general term and includes 
the latter. We would therefore be more justified in regarding this 
photograph as the representation of worry or perplexity, or both. The 
11 who give reflection and thought have only mentioned a characteristic 
of perplexity. 








154 



84 ( 42 ) 


coquetry .... 10 

delight.9 

joy.7 

gladness .... 7 
pleasure . . . . 7 

glee.6 

ecstasy.4 

merriment ... 4 

rapture .... 4 

bliss.3 

cheerfulness ... 3 
happiness ... 3 


Judgments. 


laughter .... 3 
smiling .... 3 

vanity.3 

romantic love . . 2 

sensuous love . . 2 

dasire.2 

enthusiasm ... 2 

enthusiastic pleasure 1 
coyness . ... 1 
happiness 8? love . 1 
incredulity . . . 1 
interest . . . . 1 


pleasant speculation 1 
constant . ... 1 

posing.1 

ecstatic enthusiasm 1 
joy of living . . 1 

love-abandonment. 1 
amusement . . . 1 

surprise . . . . 1 

relaxation . . . 1 

enjoyment . . . 1 

anticipation of great 
happiness . . . 1 


CONCLUSION: 72% give delight (9) or synonyms. 

14% „ coquetry or synonyms. 

11% „ romantic love or synonyms. 

3% „ incredulity, posing surprise. 

Although the majority give delight as their judgment, yet romantic 
love and coquetry (the second group in order of frequency) is the 
more specific term. The latter always implies the former, the former 
does not always include the latter. There would seem to be more 
justification then in considering this photograph as a representation of 
Romantic love which may include both coquetry and delight. 













155 


Photograph 
No. 43. 

Posed for Juliet’s 
speech to Romeo. 


„iiow earnest thou 
hither?” 


\ 

\ \ 


l 



96 (43) 





Judgments. 




horror.14 

awe. 

2 

deep pity. . . . 

1 

annoyance ... 7 

despondent . . . 

2 

bitterness . . . 

1 

worry.6 

self-accusation . . 

1 

grief. 

1 

irritation .... 6 

horror & repulsion 

1 

puzzlement . . . 

1 

fear.5 

contempt .... 

1 

impatience . . . 

1 

surprise .... 4 

surprise & dislike. 

1 

Attempt to recollect 


mental suffering . 4 

suspicion .... 

1 

an evasive thing 

1 

dismay .... 4 

despair .... 

1 

expectancy . . . 

1 

loathing .... 3 

hate ..... 

1 

disappointment 

1 

wonder .... 3 

perplexity . . - 

1 

fright. 

1 

dread.3 

fearful scorn . . 

1 

sudden grief . . 

1 

anxiety .... 3 

pain. 

1 

meditation . . . 

1 

displeasure ... 2 

troubled .... 

1 

alarm. 

1 

amazement ... 2 

disappointed 


sympathy (some 


disgust .... 2 

astonishment 

1 

physical repug¬ 


anger.2 

aversion .... 

1 

nance) .... 

1 

CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged 

in the following groups: 


57% horror (14) or related terms. 

41% worry (6) annoyance (7) or related terms. 

2% expectancy, deep pity. 

The judgments clearly indicate that the expression was considered 
to represent either horror or worry or both. 









156 


Photograph 
No. 44. 

Posed for Juliet’s 
potion scene. 




„What if it be a 
poison ?“ etc. 


105 (44) 


Jugdments. 


terror .... 

.14 

hardness. 

1 

fright .... 

.12 

suspicion. 

1 

horror .... 

.8 

incredulous horror .... 

1 

anger .... 

.8 

rage. 

1 

fear. 

.6 

sympathy. 

1 

anxiety . . . 

.6 

antipathy. 

1 

dread .... 

.5 

alarm & surprise. 

1 

alarm .... 

.5 

expectancy. 

1 

horror & fear . 

.2 

amazement. 

1 

worry .... 

.2 

fear & astonishment .... 

1 

astonishment . 

.2 

„ & aversion. 

1 

surprise . . . 

.9 

annoyance . 

1 

mental pain . . 

.2 

wonder. 

1 

dismay . . . 

. . 3 

pain. 

1 

fear & wonder . 

.1 

displeasure . 

1 

alarm & dread . 

.1 

grief at fearful accident to 


grief .... 

.1 

loved one. 

1 

repugnance . . 
attention . . . 

' .... 1 

.1 

awe. 

2 

CONCLUSION: 

76°/o terror (14) or 
12% anger (8) „ 

synonyms. 



10°/o worry (2) „ 

2% attention, expectancy. 


The general consensus of the judgments seems to regard photograph 

No. 44 as having the expression of a 
terror. 

high degree of fear approaching 






































157 


Photograph 
No. 45. 

Posed for Juliet’s 
potion scene. 


„ Romeo, I come! 
this do I drink to 
thee.” 


118 (45) 



pain.7 

amusement ... 4 

bore.4 

interest .... 3 

physical suffering. 3 

expectation ... 3 
mental suffering . 3 
anxiety .... 3 
bitterness.... 3 
dismay .... 2 

disdain .... 2 

amused & astonished 2 
thought .... 2 

delight .... 2 

grief.2 

calculation ... 2 

fuss.2 

reflection .... 2 

pain & mirth . . 1 

yielding joy (resig¬ 
nation) .... 1 

gladness . ... 1 

yearning . . . • 1 


Judgments 


pity. ..... 2 

annoyance ... 2 
sympathy & pity . 1 

speculation . . .' 1 

dislike.1 

mockery .... 1 

disgust . . . . 1. 

sneering .... 1 

amused surprise . 1 

aversion .... 1 

happiness . . .1 
indifference ... 1 

friendliness . . . 1 

attention .... 1 

ecstasy .... 1 

sorrow.1 

uncertainty . . . 1 

distracted . . . 1 

longing . ... 1 

laughter .... 1 

sympathy ... 2 

satisfaction . . . 1 

hopelessness . . 1 


expectation in 

thought . . . 1 

amused contempt . 1 

calculation & sus¬ 
picion . ... 1 

painful meditation 1 
despairing awe . 1 

sudden memory . 1 

causing recognition 1 
distracted about 
something . . 1 

relaxation . . . 1 

sadness . ... 1 

amused suspicion. 1 

repugnance . . . 1 

contempt in pain . 1 

haughtiness . . . 1 

incredibility . . . 1 

bored with disgust 1 
disgust Sf bore . . 1 

displeasure . . . 1 

amazement . . . 1 


CONCLUSION: 56°/ 0 pain. 9°/ 0 thought. 

24°/ 0 pleasure. 2°/ 0 neutral. 

8° o pain and pleasure. l°/ 0 haughtiness. 

At the first glance, we may be perplexed by the apparent inconsistency of the 
judgments, 56 of which give pain and 24 pleasure. However, when we come to 
the next group of 8, the puzzle is solved when we find 8 judgments naming at once 
pain and pleasure. It would seem that the latter 8 observers had a complete insight 
into the expression of the photo while the former had only a partial vision, having 
seen either one or the other element of the complex emotion. Such an interpretation 
would seem to agree with the bitter sweet feeling Juliet must have felt while drinking 
the potion. 








158 





117 (46) 





Judgments, 



eargness . 

... 9 

aspiration . . . 

2 

awe.1 

pleasure . 

... 9 

powerful attention 

2 

beauty.1 

gladness . 

... 7 

admiration . . . 

2 

enjoyment . . . 1 

glee. . . 

.... 5 

desire. 

2 

cheerfulness . . . 1 

expectancy 

... 4 

daring. 

1 

delightful anxiety . 1 

interest . 

... 4 

excitement . . . 

1 

pleasure but with 

enthusiasm 

... 4 

happiness . . . 

1 

distraction . . 1 

ecstasy 

... 4 

anxiety .... 

1 

attention with longing 1 

joy . . . 

... 3 

surprise .... 

1 

suspicion .... 1 

hope . . 

... 3 

reflection .... 

1 

ugliness . . . . 1 

amusement 

... 3 

amazement . . . 

1 

exhilaration . . . 1 

wonder 

... 3 

uplifting determi¬ 


distraction # pleasure 1 

delight. . 

... 3 

nation .... 

1 

revengeful gladness 1 

defiance . 

... 2 

rapture .... 

1 

hate.1 

pleasant surprise . 2 

vengeance . . . 

1 

mental bliss ... 1 

relief . . 

. . • 2 

self-assertion . . 

1 



CONCLUSION: 26% eagerness (9) or synonyms. 

48% pleasure (9) or synonyms. 

8% wonder (3) or synonyms. 

7% defiance (2) etc. 

1% anxiety. 

4 expectancy. 

4 pleasure. 

2 determination, thought. 

From the nature of the judgments given it would seem that the 
expression in photograph No. 46 is that of a complex emotion with 
ecstasy and eargerness as its important elements. 












159 


Photograph 
No. 47. 


Posed for 
„I hate you.” 



171 (47) 


Ju 

ugliness. 

disgust. 

hate .. 

disdain. 

scorn . 

aversion. 

defiance. 

repugnance . 

irritation. 

bitterness ....... 

contempt. 

hardness . 

sneering. 

loathing # great dislike . . 

dislike.. 

dread-anger-defiance . . . 

bitterness & hardness . . . 

mental pain. 

sneering & contempt . . . 

weeping. 


d g m e n t s. 

13 fury. 

11 timidity. 

8 perturbance . . . . 

8 bore. 

7 self-assertion . . . 

5 antipathy. 

5 sulkiness. 

5 displeasure . . . . 

2 suspicion. 

2 disgusted dread . . 

2 childlike pettishness . 

2 sorrowful pity . . . 

2 pouting. 

2 sullen anger . . 

2 disagreeable . . . . 

1 self-sufficiency. . . 

1 disregard. 

1 pain. 

1 loathing. 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 


CONCLUSION: 99°/o give a greater or lesser degree of hate; 1% is 
contradictory. The conclusion is self-evident. ( 10 ) 







































160 


Photograph 
No. 48. 


Posed for 
sympathy. 


Jugdments 


worry . . . 

. . 10 

calculation . . . 

2 

antipathy fear or pain 

1 

anxiety . 

. . 9 

fear. 

2 

hopelessness . . 

1 

sympathy. . 

. . 7 

distress .... 

2 

dismay .... 


dislike . . . 

. . 5 

disgust .... 

1 

sympathy with 

1 

displeasure . 

. . 5 

aversion .... 

1 

another’s pain . 

pity.... 

. . 5 

discourag. thoughts 

1 

endurance . . . 

1 

irritation . . 

. . 5 

hopeless anxiety . 

1 

pain. 

1 

mental pain . 

. . 4 

mental suffering . 

1 

pain & sorrow . . 

1 

annoyance . 

. . 4 

sympathy and horror 

1 

ugliness .... 

1 

sorrow. . . 

. . 3 

sympathetic pain . 

1 

hardness . . . • 

1 

antipathy . . 

. . 3 

want of interest . 

1 

longing .... 

1 

dread . . . 

. . 3 

bore. 

1 

unwilling attention 

1 

physical pain 

. . 3 

perplexity . . . 

1 

grief. 

1 

repugnance . 

. . 2 

harshness 


lack of understanding 


scorn . . . 

. . 2 

& indecision . . 

1 

something . . 

1 

CONCLUSION: 

The judgments may be arranged 

in the following groups: 


4172% worry (10), anxiety (9) or synonyms. 

1572% sympathy (9 V 2 ), pity (5) „ „ 

21% dislike. 

19% pain. 

2% thought. 

1% neutral. 

The majority judge this photograph as having the expression of 
worry and anxiety, or the like (4lV 2 times), or pain (19 times) thus 
indicating the essential quality of sympathy, — the 15V 2 % who give 
terms of sympathy and pity have come still closer to naming the emotion 
portrayed; the 2% that express their judgment as thought have merely 
named a quality of sympathy. As to the 21% who give terms of 
dislike, their judgments bring in the social factor which gives us sympathy 
as the basis of dislike. 

Hence we may conclude that photograph No. 48 is a typical rep¬ 
resentation of sympathy. 

















161 


Photograph 
No. 49. 

Posed 

for „Oh! Pshaw!” 
(annoyed with 
oneself). 


Judgments. 


disgust .... 

. ... 17 

aversion & fear . . . 

. . 1 

loathing. 

. ... 11 

irritation. 

. . 1 

aversion .... 

. . . . 8 

determination .... 

. . 1 

repugnance . . . 

. ... 1 

dread ....... 

. . 1 

antipathy.... 

. ... 4 

agony . 

. . 1 

anger . 

. ... 4 

mental agony .... 

. . 1 

pain. 

. ... 4 

sorrow. 

. . 1 

physical suffering 

. ... 4 

sympathy. 

. . 1 

rage. 

. ... 4 

vexation. 

. . 1 

dislike. . • • • 

. ... 3 

nervous irritability . . 

. . 1 

bitterness . . 

. ... 3 

fear & pain. 

. . 1 

scorn . 

. ... 3 

ugliness. 

. . 1 

great displeasure . 

. ... 2 

defiance. 

. . 1 

annoyance . . . 

. ... 2 

grief. 

. . 1 

hate. 

. ... 2 

timidity. 

. . 1 

sneer . 

... 2 

tears . 

. . l 

disdain .... 

. ... 2 

repulsion. 

. . l 

passion .... 

. ... 1 




CONCLUSION: The expression of this photograph is almost unanim¬ 
ously judged to be that of disgust. This word or its synonyms were 
given as its judgment 99 times. 



Feelings and Emotions. 


12 


































162 



Judgments. 


despair.11 

distraction.9 

dismay.8 

worry.7 

mental suffering.6 

alarm.6 

terror.5 

thought . 5 

anxiety.4 

perplexity.3 

grief.3 

fear.2 

fright.2 

wonder.2 

painful surprise.2 

astonishment.2 

despondency . 2 

desparation.2 


bewilderment.2 

amazement.1 

want of interest.1 

alarm & fright.1 

desire.l 

dread.1 

meditation.1 

unpleasant circumstance . . 1 

racking brains.1 

distracted.1 

something terrible happened . 1 

awe.i 

surprise.l 

hopelessness.l 

horror.1 

anguish.l 

catastrophe.l 

attention.l 


CONCLUSION: 97°/o give despair (11), distracted (9), dismay (18), 
or synonyms; 3°/o want of interest, desire, attention. Despair 
may therefore be regarded as the expression represented in photograph 
No. 50. 



































163 


Photograph 
No. 51 

Posed for rage. 


Judgments. 


horror. 

16 

violent indignation 

2 

alarm. 

1 

rage. 

9 

defiance .... 

2 

assertion .... 

1 

anger . 

8 

dread . 

2 

..yelling” (fright) . 

1 

bored. 

5 

mental suffering . 

1 

horrible news . . 

1 

annoyance . . . 

4 

scolding .... 

1 

dread . 

1 

dismay .... 

4 

disdain .... 

1 

dissatisfaction . . 

1 

frenzied alarm . . 

3 

pain. 

1 

determination in 


fury. 

3 

despair .... 

1 

suffering . . . 

1 

physical pain . . 

3 

surprise & shock . 

1 

objection No! . . 

1 

hate. 

3 

amazement & unbelief 1 

startled .... 

1 

passion .... 

2 

anger & astonishment 1 

firmness 8? hardness 

1 

surprise .... 

2 

anger & amazement 

1 

distraction . . . 

1 

self-assertion . . 

2 

scorn . 

1 

repugnance . . . 

1 

amazement . . . 

2 

contempt .... 

l 

strong suspicion . 

1 

extreme displeasure 

2 

astonishment . . 

1 

outrage .... 

1 


CONCLUSION: 31°/o horror (16) or synonyms. 

40Vs 0 /© rage (9) or synonyms 
17% pain (5) or synonyms 
4% self-assertion 
7 7* % surprise etc. 

This photograph, according to the judgments given, is perhaps a 
representation of rage rather than horror, not only because the former 
is given more frequently, but because rage may include horror. 



151 (51) 


12 







164 


Photograph 
No. 52 

Posed for vanity. 


149 (52) 



Don’t you think I 
look pretty? 


Judgments. 


coquetry.19 

vanity.10 

coyness . 8 

pleasure . 8 

love.6 

delight.5 

beauty.5 

happiness.4 

bliss.4 

interest . 4 

ecstasy.3 

smiling.3 

gladness.2 

friendliness.2 

amusement.2 


rapture.2 

flirt ..... 1 

desire ..1 

glee.1 

adoration..1 

satisfaction.1 

admiration.1 

tenderness.1 

a feeling of comfortableness . 1 

self-conscious pleasure ... 1 

trust and hopefulness . . . 1 

expectancy.1 

playful mood.1 

self-satisfaction ..... 1 


CONCLUSION: 28% coquetry (19), coyness (8), flirt (1). 

12% vanity and synonyms. 

48% pleasure. 

127- love. 

There are more judgments of coquetry (28) than of vanity (12), but 
the other judgments would bear out the statement of the latter rather 
than the former. We therefore may consider this photograph as a 
representation of vanity. 





































165 



150 (53) 


thought .... 10 
earnestness ... 8 
sadness .... 8 
interest .... 7 

want of interest . 5 

calculation ... 5 

bore.4 

attention .... 4 

sympathy.... 3 
reflection .... 3 
anxiety .... 3 
modesty .... 2 

calculation & distrust 2 
dejection .... 2 

dislike.2 


Judgments. 


despondency . . 2 
troubled .... 2 

disappointment. . 2 

humility .... 2 

discouragement . 1 

distraction . . . l 

anger.1 

resignation . . . l 

serious . . . . 1 

penetration . . . 1 

meekness & humility l 
naive innocence . 1 

complacency . . l 

disappointment. . 1 

bitterness. . . . 1 


suspicion . . . . 1 

lack of initiation . 1 

pity. 1 

annoyance . . . 1 

tired.1 

hope.1 

liking.1 

resolution . . . 1 

trust.1 

morose . . . . 1 

desire.1 

longing . . . . 1 

mournful . . . . 1 


CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 

36°/o thought or synonyms. 

34°/o sadness or synonyms. 

9% modesty or synonyms. 

8°/o sympathy or synonyms. 

7% interest or synonyms. 

5 0 /o want of interest. 

1% anger. 

34 judgments attribute sadness to the expression. The 36% that 
give thought or its synonyms have only named a characteristic of 
sadness. The same may be said of the 9 observers who gave terms 
of self-abasement. We are justified in regarding this photograph as 
an expression of sadness. ( n ) 












166 



155 (54) 


Judgments. 


smiling .... 

. ... 14 

amusement . . . 

. ... 12 

pleasure .... 

. ... 11 

delight .... 

. ... 11 

happiness . . . 

. ... 10 

merriment . . . 

. . . . 9 

cheerfulness . . . 

. . . . 6 

laughter .... 

. . . . 5 

glee. ..... 

. .... 5 

gladness .... 

. ... 4 


joy . • • 
enthusiasm 
bliss . . 

interest . 1 

grinning ........ 1 

smiling & delight.1 

perfunctory laughter . . . . 1 

happy care free.1 

gratification.1 


CONCLUSION: 100° o agree to terms denoting pleasurable emotions. 
The most frequently given judgment is smiling (14), which is in 
agreement with the intention of the pose. We may consider photograph 
No. 54 as a rather adequate representation of smiling. 


co co 






















167 



157 (55) 


disgust . . . . 

Judgments. 

. . 3 

repugnance . . . 

.... 14 

bore. 

. . 2 

sneering . . . . 

.... 8 

aversion. 

. • 2 

annoyance . . . 

.... 8 

hatred. 

. . 1 

dislike. 

.... 7 

worry. 

. . 1 

loathing . . . . 

.... 4 

loathing & annoyance . 

. . 1 

displeasure . . . 

.... 4 

pain. 

. . l 

irritation . . . . 

.... 3 

assertion of will . . . 

. . 1 

scorn . 

.... 3 

disdain. 

. . 1 


CONCLUSION: 100% give as their judgments either disgust (36) or 
related terms. We may conclude therefore that photograph No. 55 is a 
typical representation of disgust. 























168 


Photograph 
No. 56. 


Posed for a mental 
state which follows 
immediately after 
having answered a 
question. 



247 (56) 


Judgments. 


interest . . . 

. 20 

mental suffering . 

2 

trust. 

1 

attention . . . 

. 14 

listening attentively 

1 

resignation . . . 

1 

expectancy . . 

. 7 

self-abasement . . 

1 

faith. 

1 

longing . . . 

. 5 

resignation . . . 

1 

wonder .... 

1 

thought . . . 

. 5 

tenderness . . . 

1 

admiration . . . 

1 

reflection . . . 

. 3 

bore. 

1 

despair (not violent) 

1 

calculation . . 

. 3 

anxiety .... 

1 

absorption . . . 

1 

calmness . . . 

. 3 

pity. 

1 

suspicion .... 

1 

yearning . . . 

. 2 

friendliness . . . 

1 

eagerness .... 

1 

hope .... 

. 2 

humility .... 

1 

amusement . . . 

1 

earnestness . . 

. 2 

sympathy.... 

1 

surprise & suspicion 

1 

liking .... 

. 2 

timidity .... 

1 

meditation . . . 

1 

determination . 

. 2 

good natured . . 

1 

desire. 

1 

lack of interest 

. 2 

stupidity .... 

1 




CONCLUSION: 54°/ 0 interest (20) or synonyms. 

18% thought (5) or synonyms. 

13% tenderness. 

7% pain. 

4% self-abasement. 

1% wonder. 

3% lack of interest, stupidity. 

The judgments given would indicate that some kind of thought was 
generally regarded to be the expression of photograph No. 56. 














169 


Photograph 
No. 57. 


Posed for thinking. 
The question which 
was answered in 
photograph No.56 is 
thought out here. 




248 (57) 






Judgments. 




reflection .... 

11 

contemplation . . 

2 

distraction . . 

. l 

attention .... 

6 

friendliness . . . 

2 

fearful contem¬ 


thought .... 

5 

doubt . 

2 

plation . . . 

. 1 

interest .... 

4 

calculation . . . 

2 

self-abasement . 

. 1 

longing . . . . 

3 

inattention . . . 

2 

vanity .... 

. 1 

timidity .... 

3 

desire. 

1 

pleasant reverie 

. 1 

resignation . . . 

3 

yearning .... 

2 

resentment . . 

. 1 

admiration . . . 

3 

sympathy.... 

1 

disdain . . . 

. 1 

suspicion .... 

3 

aspiration.... 

1 

beauty .... 

. 1 

hope. 

3 

pity. 

1 

indifference . . 

. 1 

meditation . . . 

3 

alarm. 

1 

scorn .... 

. 1 

expectancy . . . 

3 

wistfulness . . . 

1 

willingness . 

. 1 

wonder .... 

3 

questioning . . . 

1 

listening . . • 

. 1 

trust. 

2 

earnestness . . . 

l 

peacefulness. . 

. 1 

faith. 

2 

humility .... 

1 

religion . . . 

. 1 

coyness .... 

2 

coquetry .... 

l 

resolution . . 

. 1 

looking away think¬ 


insulted .... 

1 



ing . 

2 

fear (not very strong) 

1 





CONCLUSION: 30°/o reflection 
29% emotion 

37% attention, interest or words implying thought 
2% inattention 
1% self-abasement 
1%. indifference. 

Of the 100 judgments given, 30% use reflection (11) or synonyms; 
39% give attention (6), interest (4). or words implying thought; 
29% give emotions which have thought as an important element; 
4% give inattention, self-abasement, indifference. We may 
therefore conclude that photograph No. 57 is an adequate representation 
of thinking (reflection) accompanied by some kind of an emotion 
centering around longing. 












170 



253 (58) 


Judgments. 


determination . 

. 23 

repressed passion . 

2 

resistance . . . 

I 

firmness . . . 

. 10 

resolution . . . 

2 

irritation .... 

1 

defiance . . . 

. 8 

bitterness.... 

2 

shocking .... 

1 

hardness . . . 

. 6 

positively no . . 

1 

ugliness .... 

1 

annoyance . . 

. 3 

aversion .... 

l 

pretending to be 


self-assertion . 

. 3 

suspicion .... 

1 

angry .... 

1 

hate .... 

. 3 

disagreement . . 

l 

suppressed mirth . 

2 

anger .... 

. 3 

sham determination 

1 

cranky. 

1 

contempt . . . 

. 3 

firmness in „ 

1 

stubbornness . . 

1 

displeasure . . 

. 2 

despondency . . 

1 

grief. 

1 

uncompromising 

. 3 

rage. 

1 

antipathy.... 

1 

sternness . . . 

. 2 

dread . 

1 

madness .... 

l 

repressed rage . 

. 2 

controlling anger . 

1 

calculation . . . 

1 


CONCLUSION: 42°/o determination or synonyms. 

40% defiance (8), hardness (6), hate (3) or related terms. 

10% annoyance (3), displeasure (2), or related terms. 

1% suspicion. 

4% calculation, positively no, suppressed mirth. 

3% uncompromising. 

While none has judged this photo as having the expression of 
jealousy, this does not necessarily prove the absence of this expression 
in the photo. Jealousy is a complex emotion. Those who have given 
defiance, etc. as their judgment (40) have named an element of this 
complex. Those who have given determination etc. (42) were probably 
misled by the tight compression of the lips. 











171 


Photograph 
No. 59. 

Posed for Jealousy 
[more intense than 
in No. 58. 


defiance . . 

. . 7 

254 (59) 

Judgments, 
disapproval . . . 

1 

2 

snubbing . . . 

. 1 

bitterness. . 

. . 6 

disbelief .... 

2 

ugliness . . . 

. 1 

anger . . . 

. . 6 

hate 

2 

sham sternness 

. 1 

scorn . . . 

. . 5 

coquettish . . . 

2 

fear. 

. 1 

disdain . . 

. . 4 

suppressed grief or 


dread .... 

. 1 

aversion . . 

. . 4 

anger .... 

1 

passion . . . 

. 1 

contempt . . 

. . 4 

sneer ..... 

1 

intense thought 

. 1 

antipathy . . 

. 4 

sarcasm .... 

1 

distrust . . . 

. 1 

hardness . . 

. . 4 

determination . . 

i 

hatred revenge . 

. 1 

suspicion . . 

. . 4 

self-assertion . . 

1 

stubbornness . 

. 1 

irritation . . 

. . 3 

haughtiness . . . 

1 

envy .... 

. 1 

displeasure . 

. . 3 

disapproval 


decided disfavor 

. 1 

resolution 

. . 2 

& aversion . . 

l 

mental suffering 

. 1 

disgust . . 

. . 2 

firmness .... 

1 

firmness and 


jealousy . . 

. . 2 

„ & resolution 

1 

contempt . . 

1 

despise . . 

. . 2 

disgust & surprise 

1 

annoyance . . 

. 1 

dislike . . . 

making fun . 

CONCLUSION: 

. . 2 determined reveng- 

. . 2 eful anger . . 1 

66% defiance (7) bitterness (6) anger (6) or related 

terms 


8% suspicion 4) disbelief (2) fear (1) etc. 

7°/o stubbornness 
3°/o jealousy (2) envy (1) 
ll°/o irritation (3) displeasure (3) etc. 

4°/o making fun, coquettish. 

1 °/o Intense thought. 

In general, the same may be said of this photo as that of No. 58, 
with this addition that the nature of the emotion portrayed was more 
evident in this photograph as it appears from the fact that 3 give 
jealousy or envy as their judgment, and 8 name suspicion, which is 
an essential element of jealousy. 











172 



Photograph 
No. 60. 

Posed for attention. 


attention . . . 

. 8 

worry .... 

. 7 

thought . . . 

. 7 

calculation . . 

. 5 

annoyance . • 

. 5 

anxiety . . . 

. 5 

reflection . . . 

. 4 

interest . . . 

. 3 

irritation . . . 

. 3 

anger .... 

. 2 

dread .... 

. 2 

expectancy . . 

. 2 

wonder . . . 

. 2 

earnestness . . 

. 2 

fear. 

. 2 

alarm .... 

. 2 


249 (60) 

Judgments. 


trying to get a 

question ... 2 

firmness .... 2 

surprise .... 2 

determination . . 2 

slight displeasure . 2 

dislike.2 

contemplation . . 2 

unbelief .... 2 

anticipation of bad 
news . . . . 1 

anxious . . . . 1 

bore.1 

timidity . . . . 1 

sorrow.1 

sadness . . . . 1 

resolution . . . 1 


meditation . . . 1 

perplexity . . . 1 

contempt . . . . 1 

despondency >. . 1 

nothing . . . . 1 

longing . . . . 1 

envy.1 

despairing intentness 1 

apathy.1 

mental suffering . 1 

disdain . . . . 1 

intensity . . . . 1 

despair . . . . 1 

suspicion . . . . 1 

mental hesitation . 1 

doubt.1 


CONCLUSION: Of the 100 judgments given, 8 are attention, 34 are 
terms closely related to it, and the rest are emotions having attention 
as an important element. We may accept this photograph as an adequate 
representation of attention. It is interesting to note here that 2 observers 
actually name the expression as „trying to get a question”, which is 
exactly what A. F. had done. 

NOTE: Since attention very seldom comes as an independent element 
it is not surprising that 58 observers have read into the photograph 
some emotion or other, which they have come to associate with attention. 












173 





255 (61) 


Judgments. 


sneering .... 

.... 33 

contempt .... 

.... 19 

scorn . 

.... 16 

disgust .... 

.... 8 

disdain .... 

.... 7 

aversion .... 

.... 2 

loathing .... 

.... 2 

ugliness .... 

.... 2 

haughtiness . . . 

. ... 1 

defiance .... 

. . . . 1 


hate.1 

contemptuous loathing . . . 1 

bore.1 

„0 tut, tut” says she . . . 1 

dislike.1 

repugnance . 1 

top loftiness ...... 1 

bitterness.1 

derision.1 


CONCLUSION: 100°o give either sneering (33) or related terms. 
We may therefore accept this photograph as a typical representation of 
sneering. 

















174 


Photograph 
No. 62. 

Posed for contempt. 


148 (62) 



Judgments. 


contempt.21 

disdain.21 

sneering.10 

scorn.11 

haughtiness.9 

disgust.6 

bore.4 

dislike.3 

vanity.2 

calculation.1 

snipping.1 


antipathy.1 

superiority.1 

cynical.1 

defiance.1 

indignant.1 

loftiness.1 

displeasure.1 

coquetry.1 

superciliousness.1 

reflection following rejection . 1 


haughty indifference & scorn 1 


CONCLUSION: 100% give contempt (21) or its synonyms. Photo¬ 
graph No. 62 may therefore be taken as a typical representative of 
contempt. 






















175 



147 (63) 


Judgments. 


tenderness . . . 

9 

eagerness . . . 

. 1 

contemptuous amu¬ 


pleasure . . . . 

9 

playfulness . . 

. 1 

sement .... 

1 

amusement . . . 

5 

aspiration . . 

. 1 

humorous assent . 

1 

sympathy.... 

5 

chatty .... 

. 1 

despondency . . 

1 

Pity. 

5 

antipathy . . . 

. 1 

sarcasm .... 

1 

sneering .... 

5 

self-assertion . 

. 1 

condescension . . 

1 

liking. 

3 

bore .... 

. 1 

friendliness . . . 

1 

coyness .... 

3 

teasing . . . 

. 1 

joy. 

1 

making fun . . . 

2 

desire .... 

. 1 

glee. 

1 

scorn . 

2 

love (romantic). 

. L 

expectation . . . 

1 

interest .... 

2 

love (altruistic),. 

. 1 

aversion .... 

1 

distraction . . . 

2 

love (maternal) . 

. 1 

tolerance .... 

1 

smiling .... 

2 

approval . . . 

. 1 

laughing .... 

1 

sympathetic merri¬ 


mockery . . . 

. 2 

incredulous . . . 

1 

ment .... 

2 

bashful interest 

. 1 

disbelief .... 

1 

coquetry .... 

2 

hardness . . . 

. 1 

pleasing puzzle 

1 

amazement . . . 

2 

cheerfulness . . 

. 1 

enthusiasm . . . 

1 

yearning .... 

2 

unconcernedness 

. 1 

amusement with 


dislike. 

2 



some worry . . 

1 


CONCLUSION: 39% Tenderness 

32% pleasurable element 
29% contradictory. 

The majority of the observers agree in ascribing tenderness and 
some sort of pleasurable feeling to the expression of the expression 
of the photograph (71). The 29 who give contradictory terms have 
probably been misled by the peculiar shape of the mouth which was 
caused by the speaking of A. F. while she posed. 












176 



Judgments. 


disgust.33 

repugnance.18 

loathing.9 

dislike.9 

aversion.6 

contempt.4 

loathing & disgust .... 3 

sneering.3 

hatred.3 


ugliness.2 

disdain.2 

irritation.2 

annoyance . 1 

distaste.1 

mental trouble.1 

nauseating.1 

peeved . 1 

antipathy.1 


CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgment is disgust (33), 
repugnance (18), loathing (9), dislike (9), aversion (6), and the 
balance give related terms. Hence, since all agree on all or some of 
the elements of disgust, we may conclude that photograph No. 64 is a 
typical representation of disgust. 



























177 


ft- 


226 (65) 


Judgments. 


disgust. 

. . . 28 

sun in the eyes . 

.... 2 

repugnance .... 

. . . 16 

scorn . 

.... 2 

dislike. 

. . . 12 

annoyance . . . 

.... 2 

loathing. 

. . . 11 

disdain .... 

. . . . 1 

aversion. 

. . . 11 

scowling .... 

. • . . 1 

antipathy. 

... 4 

perfectly horrid 

. . . . 1 

great displeasure . . 

... 3 

bitterness.... 

. . . . 1 

sneer . 

... 2 

bore. 

. ... 1 


contempt.2 

CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgment is disgust (28), 
the others are repugnance (16), dislike (12), loathing (11), etc., 
terms which are synonymous with disgust. Hence, we may conclude 
that disgust is the expression portrayed in photograph No. 65. 


Photograph 
No. 65. 

Posed for a higher 
degree of disgust 
than No. 66. 



Feelings and Emotions. 


13 






















178 




J u d g i 

ment s. 



aversion. 

. . 15 

bitterness & surprise 


. 1 

loathing. 

. . 13 

antipathy. 


. 1 

disgust. 

. . 8 

distrust. 


. 1 

horror. 

. . 8 

horror & incredibility 


. 1 

repugnance. 

. . 6 

„ „ sympathy . 


. 1 

dislike. 

. . 5 

amazement & disgust 


. 1 

scorn . 

. . 3 

interest & horror . . 


. 1 

disbelief. 

. . 3 

incredulous dislike . 


. 1 

disdain. 

. . 2 

grief at recital of sorrow . 

. 1 

contempt. 

. 2 

disgust & horror . . 


. 1 

dismay. 

. . 2 

fear....... 


. 1 

surprise. 

. . 2 

self-abasement . . . 


. 1 

„ # dislike . . . 

. . 2 

sneering. 


. 1 

bore . . . . . „ . 

. . 2 

resigned disapproval. 


. 1 

suspicion. 

. . 2 

Oh! how terrible . . 


. 1 

annoyance . 

. . 2 

Oh! my ! . . . . 


• 1 

hate. 

. . 2 

beginning of sneeze . 


. 1 

mental suffering . . . 

. . 1 

astonishment . . . 


. 1 

physical suffering. . . 

. . 1 

irritation. 


. 1 

CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgments are aversion (15), 

loathing (13), disgust 

(8), horror (8), repugnance (6), 

the balance 


are akin in meaning. We may therefore accept aversion as the expres¬ 
sion of photograph No. 66. 























179 



Judgments. 


annoyance . . 

. 12 

suspicion .... 

2 

haughty . . 

. 1 

thought . . . 

. 9 

serious .... 

2 

contemplation . 

. 1 

anger . . . . 

. 5 

heavy on mind 

1 

calculation . . . 

. 1 

meditation . . 

. 4 

invulnerableness . 

1 

righteous indignation 1 

irritation . . . 

. 4 

understanding alien 


firm in determination 1 

anxiety . . . 

. 4 

ideas . . . . 

1 

hardness . . . 

. 1 

pained attention 

. 4 

worried attention . 

1 

dread .... 

. 1 

antipathy . . . 

. 3 

not understanding 

1 

dismay . . . . 

1 

displeasure . . 

. 3 

questioning thought 

1 

commiserating . . 

. 1 

earnestness . . 

. 3 

despondency . . 

1 

indignation . . 

. 1 

wonder . . . 

. 3 

mental suffering . 

1 

dislike .... 

. 1 

worry .... 

. 2 

resolution . . . 

1 

intent interest . 

. 1 

perplexity . . 

. 2 

hatred. 

1 

sternness ... 

. 1 

firmness . . . 

. 2 

revenge .... 

1 

defiance . . . . 

. 1 

determination . 

. 2 

repugnance . . . 

1 

womanly & yet angry 1 

reflection . . . 

. 2 

pain. 

1 

astonishment . 

. 1 

expectancy . . 

. 2 

distraction . . . 

1 



CONCLUSION: 

40% use annoyance & its synonyms. 



22°/o give anger & its synonyms. 

25% give thought & its synonyms. 

11% use determination & its synonyms. 

62% agree in ascribing to the photograph various degrees of anger. 
The 25% who give thought as their judgment have apparently seen only 
one element of anger to the exclusion of others, for thoughtfulness 
is a characteristic of an angry mood. The 11% who give determination 
have seen another aspect of the angry mood. Hence we may accept 
this photograph as an adequate representation of an angry mood. 

13 * 










180 



190 ( 68 ) 


Judgments. 


aversion . . 

. . 14 

worry. 

2 

modesty .... 

1 

suspicion . . 

. . 11 

distrust .... 

2 

bore. 

1 

dislike . . . 

. . 1 

calculation . . . 

2 

timidity .... 

1 

scorn . . . 

. . 6 

alarm. 

1 

forced submission 

1 

annoyance . 

. . 5 

discontent . . . 

1 

awe. 

1 

hardness . . 

. . .4 

distraction . . . 

1 

terror . 

1 

loathing . . 

. . 3 

observing something 


hate. 

1 

repugnance . 

. . 3 

unpleasant . . 

1 

despair .... 

1 

disdain . . 

. . 3 

bitterness.... 

1 

surprise .... 

1 

dread . . . 

. . 3 

fear & annoyance . 

1 

displeasure . . . 

1 

contempt . . 

. . 3 

apprehension . . 

1 

irritation .... 

1 

fear.... 

. . 2 

fearful cringing 

1 

This is an awful thing 


antipathy . . 

. . 2 

self-assertion . . 

1 

that happened . 

1 

disgust . • 

. . 2 

frown. 

1 

repelled by something 1 

doubt . . . 

. . 2 

meditation . . . 

1 



CONCLUSION: 

The judgments may be arranged 

in the following groups: 


26V2 °/o suspicion (11) or synonyms. 

5372% aversion (14) or synonyms. 

14% annoyance (5) or synonyms. 

3% calculation (2) or synonyms. 

2% self-abasement. 

1 % self-assertiveness. 

Only 267 2 % use the expression suspicion (or synonyms). The majority 
of the remaining judgments give aversion or annoyance (total 6772), 
and as both states are characteristic of a high degree of suspicion, it is more 
significant to take into consideration these 67 7 2 judgments. On the whole, 
we may perhaps be more justified in considering this photograph as a 
representation of suspicion of a high degree that is accompanied by aversion. 











181 



196 ( 69 ) 


Judgments. 


laughter. 

... 40 

rapturous surprise . . . . 

glee ...... 

... 17 

explosive joy. 

ecstasy. 

... 11 

expreme fun. 

merriment .... 

... 10 

happiness. 

rapture . 

... 6 

joy.. 

mirth. 

... 2 

hilariousness. 

delight. 

... 2 

enjoyment. 

highly amused. . . 

... 2 

enthusiasm. 

bliss. 

... 2 



CONCLUSION: Of the 100 judgments, 86% use words denoting a 
high degree of pleasurable emotions, while the remaining 14% give 
terms corresponding to a lesser degree of pleasurable feelings. Thus 
all agree in according to the photograph a higher or lesser degree of 
pleasurable states. Since the most frequently given judgment is laughter 
(40 times), which is a characteristic expression of a high degree of 
pleasurable emotion, we may accept the photograph as a typical 
representation of laughter. 






















182 



195 (70) 


joy 

merriment 
laughter 
glee 

amusement 
delight 
gladness 

enthusiasm ........ 4 

pleasure . 4 

bliss.2 


rapture . . *.2 

cheerfulness.1 

happiness ....... 1 

humor & admiration . . . . 1 

good time ....... 1 

ecstasy.. . . 1 

complete enjoyment . . . . 1 

intense enjoyment . . . . 1 

mirth.1 


Judgments. 

. . 16 
. . 16 
. . 15 
. . 13 
8 
7 
5 


CONCLUSION: 100% agree on naming emotions of various degrees 
of pleasure. The most frequently given judgments are joy (16), 
merriment (16), and laughter (15). lienee we may conclude that 
photo No. 70 is an adequate representation of joy, merriment, or laughter. 
The latter term corresponds to the expression of the emotion as 
portrayed by A. F. 
























183 


Photograph 
No. 71. 

Posed for surprise 
(greater than No.74) 



236 (71) 


Judgments. 


surprise . . . 

.... 24 

horror . 

astonishment . . 

.22 

fear . . 

amazement . . . 

.... 11 

terror . 

alarm. 

.... 9 

vexation 

wonder ........ 

.8 

dread . 

dismay. 

.... 5 

shocked 

awe. 

.5 

startled 

fright . . .. . • 

.... 4 

attention 

CONCLUSION: 

66% give high degrees of : 


3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 


degrees of the same emotion (attention (1) neutral). Hence, we may 
conclude that this photograph represents a high degree of surprise, 
amounting to amazement, which is in agreement with the judgment 
third highest in frequency (11). 























184 


Photograph 
No. 72. 

Posed 

for amazement. 


242 (72) 


amazement .... 

Judgm 

. . . 15 

ents. 

wonder. 

. 2 

terror . 

. . . 11 

disdain . 

. 1 

astonishment . . . 

. . . 9 

amazement & contempt 

. 1 

horror. 

. . . 9 

astonishment & disgust 

. 1 

alarm. 

. . . 7 

annoyance . 

. 1 

fright. 

. . . 7 

indignation. 

. 1 

awe. 

. . . 5 

incredibility. 

. 1 

defiance. 

... 4 

antipathy. 

. 1 

fear. 

. . . 3 

irritation. 

. 1 

dread . 

. . . 3 

passion. 

. 1 

amazement & horror. 

. . . 3 

unbelief. 

. 1 

dismay. 

. . . 2 

despondency . 

• 1 

shock . 

... 2 

fury. 

. 1 

shock & surprise . . 

... 2 

surprise & horror . . . . 

. 1 

fear & surprise . . 

... 2 

fear & unbelief . . . . 

; 1 


CONCLUSION: Expression denoting amazement and closely related 
terms are 96%, defiance is given 4 times and may imply amazement. 

The most frequently given judgment is amazement, given 15 
times, which agrees with the portrayal of that emotion by A. F. Hence 
we may conclude that photograph No. 72 is an adequate expression of 
amazement. 































185 


Photograph 
No. 73. 

Posed 

for astonishment. 


241 (73) 


Judgments. 

. . 20 wonder & fascination ... 1 

. . 17 fright.1 

. . 13 relief.1 

. . 11 defiance.1 

. . 5 astonishment & indignation . 1 

. . 4 astonishment & relief ... 1 

. . 4% consternation.1 

. . 3 suspicion.1 

. . 3 perplexity & astonishment. . 1 

. . 2 dazzled.1 

. . 2 physical pain.1 

. . 1 shock.1 

. . 1 unbelief & surprise .... 1 

. . 1 

CONCLUSION: 51% give high degrees of surprise, 46% lesser degrees, 
17. % contradictory terms, 1 % neutral. It would appear then that photo¬ 
graph No. 73 is a representation of surprise of somewhat high degree, 
perhaps amounting to a low intensity of astonishment. 


surprise. 

amazement .... 
wonder ..... 
astonishment . . . 

dismay. 

horror. 

fear. 

anxiety. 

awe. 

Is it possible . . . 

alarm. 

incredulity . . . . 

terror . 

incredulous surprise . 



























186 



234 (74) 


surprise .... 

Judgments. 

. 1 

amazement . . . 

.... 17 

dismay & surprise . . . , 

. 1 

astonishment . . 

.... 16 

admiration. 

1 

wonder .... 

.... 10 

consciousness of forgetting . 

1 

awe. 


unbelief. 

1 

alarm . . . . . 

.... 4 

dread. 

1 

horror. 

. . . . 3 

rapture . 

1 

dismay .... 

. .... 2 

abashed . 

1 

fright. 

.... 2 

rage.. . . 

1 

terror . 


incredulity.. 

1 


CONCLUSION: 54% give high degrees of surprise and 46% lesser 
degrees of the same emotion. Hence we may conclude that photograph 
No. 74 represents a rather high degree of surprise perhaps amounting 
to astonishment, which would be in agreement with the judgment that 
comes third in order of frequency (16). 























187 



240 .75) 


Judgments. 


surprise.24 

amazement.14 

astonishment.9 

defiance.4 

terror . 6 

surprise & terror.3 

haughtiness.3 

alarm.3 

startled.3 

indignation.2 

awe.2 

horror.2 

fear.2 

annoyance ....... 2 

unbelief.1 

suspicion.2 

surprise & horror.1 


incredible amazement ... 1 

self-assertion.1 

anger.1 

„ & haughtiness .... 1 

antipathy..1 

resentment.1 

displeasure.1 

consternation.1 

extreme exalted position . . 1 

imbecility. 1 

yearning.1 

dread.1 

trust.1 

wonder.1 

bewilderment.1 

interest . 1 

scorn.1 


CONCLUSION: 46°/o give high degrees of surprise, 35% give lesser 
degrees of the same emotion, 15% give words describing self-assertive¬ 
ness, 4% are neutral. The great majority have seen surprise in the photo¬ 
graph, but the 15 contradictory judgments are too many in number and 
have too much internal agreement to be considered as errors. It may 
be that what these 15 have seen is a certain addition of a personal 
attitude in the surprise portrayed. 



































188 


Photograph 
No. 76. 

Posed for 5° of 
interest. 



220 (76) 


Judgments. 


expectancy.14 

coquetry.9 

pleasure.6 

keen interest.6 

delight.6 

amusement.6 

enthusiasm.5 

interest . 4 

coyness ..4 

happiness.4 

pleased surprise.4 

eagerness.4 

rapture.4 

friendliness.2 

attention.2 

expectant attention . ... 1 

pleased attention.1 

proud of some one else . . 1 


approval.II 

admiration & interest ... 1 

amusement & attention ... 1 

liking.1 

surprise.1 

delighted surprise.1 

ioy.l ' 

gladness.1 

smile.1 

love.1 

love (romantic).1 

awakening amusement ... 1 

pleasurable listening. ... 1 

pleasing alertness .... 1 

tenderness . 1 

earnestness . 1 

wonder.1 


CONCLUSION: 44°/o give interest and words used in the definition 
of interest; and the remaining 56% name higher or lesser degrees of 
pleasure. All interest is more or less pleasurable, and from the nature 
of the judgments given, we may say that the expression in photograph 
No. 76 represents highly pleasurable interest approaching admiration. 
































189 





199 (77) 


Judgments. 


reverence . 

... 25 

religious. 

... 15 

„ love . • • 

... 10 

faith. 

... 9 

devotion. 

... 4 

prayer. 

... 4 

adoration. 

... 3 

humility. 

... 3 

hope. 

... 2 

suppliant. 

... 2 

resignation . . . . 

... 2 

relief. 

. . 1 

hope 8t belief . • • 

. . . 1 

yearning. 

. . . 1 

reflection. 

. . . 1 

ecstasy . 

. . . 1 


religious hope.1 

„ ecstasy.1 

aspiration.1 

imploring heaven.1 

naive trustful prayer. . . . 1 

prayer for herself.1 

contentment.1 

invocation.1 

religious worship.1 

„ thankfulness . . . 1 

„ fervor or pleading . 1 

„ with trust . ... 1 

meditation.1 

awe.1 

piety.1 

trust.1 


CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgments are reverence 
(25), religious (15), religious love (10), faith (9), prayer (6), the 
rest'use terms which are closely related. Since practically all agree to 
words which are more or less related to the religious state, we may 
conclude that photograph No. 77 is a typical representation of a religious 
attitude. Reverence is the judgment of the majority. 




























190 





198 (78) 


awe. 

J u d g 

. . 18 

ments. 

incredulous astonishment . . 

1 

surprise. 


sudden arrival of bad news . 

1 

amazement. 

. . 7 

despondency . 

1 

wonder. 

. . 6 

hopefulness. 

1 

alarm. 

. . 5 

consternation. 

X 

astonishment . . . . 

. . 3 

expectancy 8? alarm . . . * . 

1 

expectation. 

. . 3 

hope. 

1 

hope & amazement . . 

. . 3 

undecidedness of feeling . . 

1 

anxiety. 

. . 3 

meditation. 

1 

dismay. 

. . 3 

interest . 

1 

suspicion. 

. . 2 

prayer for some one else . . 

1 

eagerness . 

. . 2 

sudden recollection .... 

1 

reflection. 


gHef . 

1 

fear. 


admiration. 

1 

anxious prayer. . . . 

. • 2 

horror while watching a cata¬ 


reverence . 

. . 2 

strophe . 

1 

dread . 


stupid attention. 

1 

waiting the inevitable . 

. . 1 

anticipation. 

1 

spontaneous devotion . 

. . 1 

physical pain. 

1 

unbelievable. 

. . 1 

aspiration. 

1 

earnestness . 

. . 2 




CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgment is awe (18 times),, 
the rest are related terms. Hence we may conclude that photograph 
No. 78 is an adequate representation of awe. 



































191 


Photograph 
No. 79. 

Posed for a degree 
higher than awful. 



205 (79) 

Judgments. 


horror.18 

distraction.17 

terror . 9 

fright.8 

despair.7 

rage.5 

dismay.3 

alarm ..3 

shocked despair.2 

despondency.2 

amazement.2 

mental suffering.2 

utter fear.2 

horror & dislike.1 

„ # despair.1 

„ & dread.1 

fury. . ..1 


dread . 

irritation. 

agony of terror . . 

intense „ . . . 

wrath. 

frantic grief & terror, 
grief & horror . . . 

excitement .... 
hopelessness . . . 

baffling obstacle . . 

crazy . 

physical pain . . . 

distress. 

wretched . . . . . 

anger ...... 

pain. 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 


CONCLUSION: The most frequently given judgments are horror 
(20 times), distraction (17), terror (11V*), and the rest use words which 
are akin in meaning. Hence we may conclude that photograph No. 79 
gives us the expression of horror. 


/ 


































192 


Photograph 
No. 80. 

Posed for „It’s 
awful. “ 


204 (80) 



Judgments. 


horror. 

. . . 16 

confused 8? shocked . . . 

. 2 

dismay. 

. . . 9 

awe. 

. 2 

terror. 

. . . 8 

surprise. 

. 2 

alarm. 

. . . 7 

pain. 

. 2 

amazement. 

. . . 6 

anger . 

. 1 

despair. 

. . . 5 

annoyance . 

. 1 

fear. 

. . . 3 

wonder.. 

. 1 

fright. 

. . . 3 

fearful astonishment. . . 

. 1 

hoplessness .... 

. . . 3 

wrath. 


distraction . . .. 

. . . 3 

bewilderment. 

. 1 

dread . 

. . . 3 

horrible reality. 


astonishment . . . 

. . . 3 

disappointment. 

. 1 

deep alarm 8? fear . . 

... 2 

relief. 


sorrow & fear . . . 

... 2 

wretched. 


amazement 8? fear. . 

... 2 

rage. 


loathing.. 

... 2 

rage 8? horror . . ., . . 

. 1 

mental suffering . . , 

... 2 

outrage. 


CONCLUSION: 99°/o 

give horror 

(16) or its synonyms as dismay (9), 


terror (8), alarm (7), etc. 1% gives relief. Hence we may conclude 
that photograph No. 80 is a representation of horror, but of a lesser 
degree than in photographs No. 33, No. 34, and No. 79. This may imply 
that the word awful may be substituted for horror. 



\ 































193 




Photograph 
No. 81. 

Posed for 3° 
of wonder. 



212 ( 81 ) 



Judgments. 


surprise. 

... 20 

wonder & fear. 

1 

astonishment . . . 

... 17 

horrified alarm . 

. 1 

amazement . . . . 

... 13 

terror & astonishment . . 

. 1 

wonder. 

... 13 

anxiety. 

. 1 

horror. 

... 10 

terror. 

. 1 

alarm. 

... 5 

incredibility. 

. 1 

dismay. 

... 3 

sorrow (sudden) .... 

. 1 

awe. 

... 3 

interest . 

. 1 

expectancy . . . . 

... 2 

anticipation. 

. 1 

fright. 

... 2 

awed attention. 

. 1 

dissent at marvelous 

and 

desire. 

. 1 


unbelievable tale .... 1 

CONCLUSION: 97°/o use words which may be taken as synonyms 
of either surprise or wonder, 3°/o give expectancy or anticipation. 

However, since wonder is a more specific term than surprise, and 
includes the latter, we are justified in taking this photograph as a 
representative of wonder. 


Feelings and Emotions. 


14 























194 


Photograph 
No. 82. 

Posed for relief. 


relief. 

... 17 

ecstasy . 

. . 2 

delight. 

... 12 

happiness. 

. . 2 

rapture . 

... 11 

liking. 

. . 1 

joy. 

... 10 

delicious. 

. . 1 

delighted relief. . . 

... 6 

joy & pleasure .... 

. . 1 

pleasure . 

... 5 

want satisfied .... 

. . 1 

merriment .... 

... 5 

gustatory satisfaction . 

. . 1 

bliss. 

... 4 

pleasurable „ 

. . 1 

gladness. 

... 4 

beauty. 

. • 1 

laughter. 

... 4 

nothing. 

. . 1 

satisfaction .... 

... 3 

worry. 

. . 1 

amusement .... 

... 3 

interest . 

. . 1 

love. 

... 2 




CONCLUSION: 28% of the judgments name different degrees of relief, 
70% give pleasurable emotions, 1% is neutral and 1% is contradictory. 
The judgments naming relief are less in numbers than those giving 
pleasurable emotions. However, we must take into consideration the fact 
that pleasure is a more general term than relief and may include the 
latter, pleasure being in fact an element of relief. Those who have given 
relief may be taken to have seen all of the elements of relief including 
pleasure, while the other 70% have seen merely the important element 
of relief-pleasure. We may therefore be justified in saying that photo¬ 
graph No. 82 represents relief rather than mere delight. 



274 (82) 

Judgments. 




























195 





186 (83) 






Judgments. 




suspicion .... 

30 

apprehensive at¬ 


despair . . . . 

1 

timidity .... 

7 

tention .... 

1 

pride. 

1 

distrust .... 

5 

anger at some one’& 


doubt . 

1 

aversion .... 

4 

action .... 

1 

firmness . . . . 

1 

scorn . 

3 

looking at an active 


interest . . . . 

1 

alarm. 

3 

object on the side 

1 

jealous curiosity . 

1 

fear # calculation . 

3 

loathing .... 

1 

disdain . . . . 

1 

fear. 

3 

distrust # fear . . 

1 

threatening anger . 

1 

antipathy .... 

2 

distrust# antipathy 

1 

envy. 

1 

watchfulness . . 

2 

self-abasement . . 

1 

thought . . . . 

1 

contempt .... 

2 

suspicious watching 

1 

worry. 

1 

meditation . . . 

2 

preparation . . . 

1 

reflection . . . . 

1 

nothing .... 

2 

jealousy .... 

1 

repugnance . . . 

1 

defiance .... 

2 

regret. 

1 

coyness . . . . 

1 

mischief .... 

1 

coquetry .... 

1 

glance with suspicion 1 



dislike. 

1 

disgust . . . . 

1 

CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged 

in the following groups: 

46% 

name suspicion (31) or 

synonyms. 



3772°/o give terms signifying worry and fear. 

6 72 °/o use words meaning thought. 

6°/<> are judgments of self-assertiveness. 

2°/o of self-abasement, 2% nothing. 

As fear and worry, thought and self-assertiveness are all char¬ 
acteristics of suspicion, we may accept this photograph as a typical 
representation of suspicion, plain and simple. It is interesting to note 
that an examination of The expression portrayed in the photograph, the 
position, eyes, etc. — tallies with the description of suspicion as given 
by authorities (Bell, etc.) 







196 



185 (84) 


Judgments. 


attention . . . . 

14 

sarcastic hardness. 

1 

trust .... 

. 1 

thought .... 

8 

distrust & suspicion 

1 

penetration . . 

. 1 

resolution . . . 

6 

attention & deter¬ 


watching . . . 

. 1 

anxiety .... 

5 

mination . . . 

1 

search .... 

. 1 

interest .... 

5 

attention & watching 

1 

discomfort . . 

. 1 

calmness .... 

5 

attention St calcul¬ 


hope .... 

. 1 

lack of interest. . 

2 

ating ..... 

1 

beauty .... 

. 1 

contemplation . . 

2 

sneering .... 

1 

dread .... 

. 1 

longing . . . . 

3 

doubt . 

1 

earnestness . . 

. 1 

determination . . 

2 

sadness . •. . . 

1 

nothing . . . 

. 1 

suspicion .... 

2 

puzzled .... 

1 

calm admiration 

. 1 

thoughtful displeas. 

2 

worry. 

1 

passivity . . . 

. 1 

bored. 

2 

listening to some 


sympathy. . . 

. 1 

meditation . . . 

2 

one. 

1 

uncertainty . . 

. 1 

reflection .... 

2 

perplexity . . . 

1 

wonder . . . 

. 1 

disappointment. . 

2 

contentment . . . 

1 

dislike .... 

. 1 

displeasure . . . 

2 

awe. 

1 

desire .... 

. 1 

intentness . . . 

2 

faith. 

1 




CONCLUSION: The judgments may be arranged in the following groups: 

14% attention. 

6% attention & determination, watching, calculation, etc. 

41% thought. 

8% resolution. 

28% anxiety (5), suspicion (2) or synonyms. 

3% Nothing (1), lack of interest (2). 

Of the 100 judgments given, 69 are attention (14) and terms closely 
related to it (including the first three groups), and the rest are names 
of emotions having attention as an important element. We may accept 
this photograph as an adequate representation of attention. 


















197 



pleasure . 

192 (85) 

Judgments. 

. . . 14 happiness and eagerness . 

. 1 

amusement .... 

... 12 

glad anticipation .... 

. 1 

smiling . 

... 10 

approval . 

. 1 

cheerfulness. . . . 

... 6 

ecstasy . 

. 1 

friendliness .... 

... 6 

pleased . 

. 1 

gladness. 

... 4 

unconcerned. 

. 1 

joy. 

... 4 

mirth. 

. 1 

merriment .... 

... 3 

amused interest .... 

. 1 

trust . 

... 3 

surprised interest .... 

. 1 

expectancy .... 

... 3 

recognition . 

. 1 

interest . 

... 3 

coyness . 

. 1 

happiness ... 

... 2 

enthusiasm . 

. 1 

surprised . 

... 2 

selfishly interested . . . 

. 1 

pleased surprised . . 

... 2 

nothing . 

. 1 

pleasant . 

... 2 

delight . 

. 1 

liking . 

... 2 

humor. 

. 1 

eagerness ... 

... 2 

wonder. . 

. 1 

surprise & delight 

... 1 

relief. 

. 1 

dislike & calculation . 

... 1 




CONCLUSION: 85°/o use terms designating pleasurable emotions of 
a greater or a lesser degree; 12% employ words which are neutral; 
3% employ contradictory expressions. The most frequently given 
judgment is pleasure (14). The next two expressions used most 
frequently are amusement (12), and smiling (10). Hence we may 
conclude that the expression of the emotion is smiling stirred up by 
a pleasurable or amused state of mind. 


















198 



191 (86) 


Judgments. 


interest . . . . 

16 

searching .... 

2 

cheerfulness . . . 

1 

thoughtfulness . . 

8 

meditation . . . 

1 

modesty .... 

1 

attention . . . . 

8 

indifference . . . 

1 

serious .... 

1 

lack of interest 

5 

peevish .... 

1 

sincerity & earnest¬ 


amused attention . 

4 

inattention . • . 

1 

ness .... 

1 

hope. 

3 

expectancy . . . 

1 

trust. 

1 

longing . . . . 

3 

sincerity .... 

1 

nothing .... 

1 

calmness . . . . 

3 

deep interest 

1 

annoyance . . 

1 

slight amusement . 

3 

resignation . . . 

1 

casual inquiry . . 

1 

repose . 

2 

bliss. 

1 

mental suffering 

1 

pleasant thought . 

2 

energy. 

1 

admiration . . . 

1 

bore. 

, 2 

pity & longing . . 

1 

yearning .... 

1 

sympathy. . . . 

2 

pity. 

1 

tenderness . . . 

1 

liking. 

2 

love. 

1 

doubt . 

1 

reflection . . . . 

2 

distasteful anticip¬ 


contentment . . . 

1 

worry, despair . . 

2 

ation .... 

1 



faith. 

2 

friendliness . . . 

1 




CONCLUSION: 26°/o interest (17) attention (9). 

23°/o thoughtfulness (8) etc. 

16°/o thought accompanied with feeling. 

7°/o pleasurable feeling. 

10°/o tenderness or synonyms. 

17°/o contradictory. 
l°/o nothing. 

65 observers (first three groups) agree in ascribing to this photo¬ 
graph the expression of attention or thoughtfulness, generally of 
a pleasurable nature. 17 (groups 4 and 5) give terms of tenderness 
and pleasurable feelings. We may therefore say that the general consensus 
of the judgments is to consider the expression of this photograph as 
being of pleasurable attention or interest. 










Chapter VII 


Expression of feelings and emotions 

Conclusion. 

Now let us see what light has been thrown upon the psychology 
of thoughts, feelings and emotions by the experiment described in the 
previous chapter. We find that there is a considerable degree of agree¬ 
ment among the one hundred judgments. Either the same words were 
used by large groups of the observers, or terms closely synonymous 
were employed. In many cases, the subject confessed to ignorance in 
regard to the word which would best express the emotion he felt, and 
which would be the judgment he wished to make. 

„I have often felt sure what the expression stood for, but could not 
readily find the word for it.” Allowing for such inaccuracies caused by 
the inadequate use of English, the agreement is even greater than the 
records would indicate. 

In a study such as this experiment, that has for its object the 
shedding of light upon the psychology of the thoughts, feelings and 
emotions, it is necessary to give consideration to words used for their 
expression. In the examination of the records of the previous chapter, 
we have found that the majority of the judgments, as a rule, have a 
mutual agreement, and conform to the word or words A. F. employed in 
stimulating or arousing the various bodily or mental states, the observers 
giving either the word employed by A. F., as referred to above, or 
synonyms. 

We are all aware of the fact that dictionaries and books on synonyms 
exist for the purpose of aiding the student of languages by giving the 
„nice shades of distinction between words closely allied.” We find in 
the introduction of Roget’s and March’s Thesaurus, in Crabb’s and Fer- 
nald’s books on synonyms, discussion in regard to the benefits derived 
from their use. 

„The dictionaries try first to state, with exactness and clear¬ 
ness, the thought for which each word stands ... 

„The definition is an idea, a solid intellectual centre; the 
emotions which have been felt with it rise in memory with it, and 

Feelings and Emotions. 15 


200 


give it an aureole, a halo, a nimbus, a glory, spheres of radiance. 

A word is thus a living power, with an individuality embodied in 

its root and affixes.” 

Let it be granted then that a .dictionary, a thesaurus, a book of 
synonyms will [give the meaning and fine distinctions between words 
closely allied, and determined by traditional usage of language, embodying 
the experiences of ages. The psychological experiment described in the 
previous chapter, by examining these nice shades of distinction between 
words of thought and feelings, as shown by judgments given, is an 
attempt at scientific verification of these definitions and distinctions 
which have been handed down as the result of racial experience by the 
actual experience of the various states, of a large group of individuals, 
carefully introspected and recorded. That is, A. F. who posed for the 
photographs had the mental and bodily attitude of the emotions expressed, 
and the reaction of one hundred reliable subjects or observers to the 
most characteristic part of this attitude. The introspection of these per¬ 
sons has shown that their responses were mostly determined by their 
assuming the same mental and bodily attitudes. Fourteen examples are 
given below: 

(1) „1 have consciously imitated several times the expression of the 
photograph and then searched introspectively for the feeling accompanying 
my expression. I am inclined to think that I have been unconsciously 
performing this in all cases.” The same observer said further: „I was 
also guided in my judgments by certain well-known cases, I might say, 
conventional gestures and attitudes, [as clasping the hands in prayer, 
holding up the hand as if shielding yourself from an attack, etc... 

(2) Another observer said: ... „It was much easier to understand 
an expression when I consciously imitated it. It gave me a sympathetic 
feeling. Several times I unconsciously wrinkled my forehead in imitation 
of the photograph I was studying.” 

(3) „When I looked at a picture the feeling of pleasant or unpleasant¬ 
ness shown in the picture came over me. Usually two or three sug¬ 
gestions of the emotion that might be indicated by the picture came to 
me. Then I deliberated on these suggestions and chose one. Sometimes 
the association was immediate. Sometimes I found it hard to get words 
to express the feeling.” 

(4) „The expressions were easy to determine ... I felt that I was 
making a face exactly like that I looked at, expressing just what that 
did; but often I could not determine just what that expression was. The 
extreme expressions were easier for me to determine than those in 
repose.” 


201 


(5) „In the expressions which were obvious, the word suggested 
itself to my mind, almost immediately, When, however, I had difficulty 
in expressing my thought, I tried to think of similar expressions which 
1 had seen on the faces of different persons and then tried to remember 
the occurrences which had caused those expressions. 

„In some cases, I tried to imitate the expressions, and then tried 
to determine under what circumstances I would be apt to make such ex¬ 
pressions ... I found that I looked at the eyes first of all, for it seems 
to me, more than half of the expression rests in the eyes.” 

(6) „The first thing that I noticed as I looked at each picture, was, 
I think, the mouth and eyes. In some cases the hands drew my attention 
and I had all I could do not to put my hands in the same position. I 
seemed to feel some of the more intense emotions, such as laughter. In 
fact as I looked at the picture which to my mind represents laugther, I 
could not control my own emotion and laughed aloud. The pictures 
brought up ideas and, in many cases, I felt that I must have shown the 
same emotion as the one pictured.” 

(7) ^Throughout the whole experiment I found myself imitating to 
some extent the facial expression before me.” 

(8) „Experience seemed to be the most important factor in inter¬ 
preting the pictures. This experience had been either in actual life, or 
in dramatic representation or in pictures.” 

(9) „ln looking at the various pictures, I was forced to assume the 
expression myself .. . Evidently we know in our own minds the emotion, 
but we cannot find a word to express it, and although we are sure that 
the picture represents that emotion which we have in mind, still we 
cannot pick the appropriate word. Then what is the result? The result 
is that we deviate in accuracy. 

„In the course of this experiment, the matter I explained in the 
above paragraph was frequent with me; i. e., I knew the emotion, but 
could not express it into language .. .” 

(10) „During the process of attempted decision of judging the ex¬ 
pression, I usually experienced a feeling that I thought the young lady 
possessed, but I generally felt at a loss for appropriate words to describe 
the feeling ... I would feel, as a rule, that I was very near the correct 
word, but that I had not judged exactly. As an example, I felt at a loss, 
in certain pictures, to call the expression disgust or dislike, or pleasure 
or happiness, etc. I usually believed I had an approximately correct guess.” 

(11) „I could tell surely whether the feeling were one of pleasure or 
unpleasantness, whether it were one of interest or indifference ... I also 
judged by the contortion of the face as to the intensity of the feeling ... 

15 * 


202 


„An open mouth always indicated an element of surprise, though 
it might be combined with other elements. 

„Religious feeling was indicated by upturned eyes and the hands 
held as in prayer.” 

(12) „In determining what emotion each expression suggested, I was 
led into mentally imitating that expression and then discovering what 
emotion I felt. I also tried to ascribe fitting words to each expression, 
and from those words I tried to determine the emotion.” 

(13) „In trying to determine the mental states shown by the 
different facial expression, it was often necessary to assume the attitude 
and to try to determine what one’s feelings are when he has the 
expression in question. Names were hard to find in many cases, for 
the expression and substitutes often had to be made.” 

(14) „... Analyzed the face, took it in in sections by covering the 
eyes or the mouth and, contrary to my former theory, I think the mouth 
a stronger, truer index/’ 

Most of the quotations illustrate the formation of judgment by 
imitating a bodily attitude similar to that of the poser, and some show,: 
the arrival at a judgment by a mental process. We also noticed that 
most of the observers confessed to having the feeling, but expressed 
inability to get the appropriate word to correspond. Thus we have an 
action and reaction of the same mental states. Both of these have their 
bases in instinctive tendencies. In imagination we may revert to the 
times when „long before words had found a place in our dictionariesj 
and in the history of the science, man had looked into the face of his 
fellow-man to read there joy and pain, hatred and love, and had sought 
to draw thence conclusions, both curious and of daily practical use . .”' 

In spite of the fact that many of the observers confessed to the 
uncertainty of the words, which should name the expression, it is. rather 
surprising to discover the unanimous agreement in many of the photo¬ 
graphs. It may be due to the fact, as many of the introspections prove, 
that the observers felt or were familiar with the emotions, and some 
name, not very dissimilar to that with which this emotion was associated, 
was given. It is also interesting to note that in the case of each 
photograph the most frequently given judgment conformed with a A. F’s 
expression of the emotion, the balance being mostly synonymous. 

Here we encounter a word which needs defining — Synonyms! 

„Synonyms then, as the term is generally understood,” says R. C. 
Trench. „On the study of Words,” are words in the same language with 
slight differences either already established between them, or potentially 
subsisting in them. They are not on the one side words absolutely 


203 


identical, for such, as has been said already, afford us room for dis¬ 
crimination; but neither on the other side are they words only remotely 
similar to one another; for the difference between these last will be 
self-evident, will so lie on the surface and proclaim themselves to all, 
that it would be as superfluous an office as holding a candle to the 
sun to attempt to make this clearer than it already is. It may be 
desirable to trace and fix the difference between scarlet and crimson, 
for these might easily be confounded but who would think of so doing 
between scarlet and green?” 

Fernald in his „English Synonyms and Antonyms” tells us that: 
„The distinction between words similar in meaning are often so fine 
and elusive as to tax the ingenuity of the accomplished scholar; yet 
when clearly apprehended they are as important for the purposes of 
language as the minute differences between similar substances are for 
the purposes of chemistry. Often definition itself is best secured by 
the comparison of kindred terms and the pointing out where each differs 
from the other. We perceive more clearly and remember better what 
each word is, by perceiving where each divides from another of kindred 
meaning . . . 

Let us take the two words, science and art, and with the knowledge 
of various facts stated thus far we may be able to give consideration 
to the light thrown by the experiment upon the possible distinction 
between science and art. In the beginning of chapter VI, the fact has 
been mentioned that A. F. posed for several hundred photographs, and 
that only 86 were used for the experiment, iiowever, we find that 
most of the photographs in chapters IV and V were posed for in a 
related series, as can be readily seen. Twenty-four photographs were 
taken in one sitting in less than three minutes including the shifting 
of the camera, etc. The complex whole was then broken up, and only 
86 of all the series were selected and given to one hundred observers, 
but not in their original order of sequence. 

We have also seen that the scheme or plan of posing was thought out 
and written down, then A. F. posed for them and either thought the thought 
or felt the feelings. This method procedure may suggest a fine line of 
demarcation between science and art. In the first case schemes are 
thought out and then recorded by the pen; in the second place thoughts 
and feelings are thought and felt and then recorded by the camera. 
The doing: that is the thinking and feeling as well as the recording, 
is art, while taking this recorded objective material, manipulating it by 
means of analysis and synthesis — in other words by inductive and 
deductive methods, — and arriving at conclusions which may be verified 


204 


in thousands of cases, is called science. We find that knowledge is 
a factor in both science and art; but verifying and systematizing the 
fact known is science, while merely reproducing or representing 
the fact known is art. 

The photographs are reproductions of the expressions of thoughts 
and feelings of an individual by means of a sensitive plate; the 
portrait artist would reproduce the same fact by means of his sensitive 
nervous system, plus some material ... We may, therefore, conclude 
that if a science of thought exists, a science of feeling may also 
exist, for thoughts are as fleeting as emotions. 

Thus far great emphasis has been laid on words, but in our 
defination of language we stated that music is the language of the 
emotions, and that „words,” are made up of music and noise. 
We ought, therefore, to say a few words on so important a subject. 
Robert Challoner in his „Science and Art of Music” writes as follows: 

„Man is an instrument of music; his very thought is expressed 
by tones. All of the various emotions — as fear, anger, joy, desire — 
have each their peculiar tone, understood by all human beings, 
and comprehended by the brute. Man exercises this power in the 
various avocations of life, using it to heighten a certain feeling of 
excitement, or to allay the fury of passion. Man sings as he 
speaks, moves and sleeps — because he must sing. Song is one 
of the requirements of his being, in accordance with the laws of 
his organization. Music is natural to all nations, savage or civilized. 
As men become civilized their singing improves, and that which 
at first was only, the accent of passion, of joy, or pain, becomes 
at last, the result of study — Art.” 

„Words”, as we stated previously, and as scientists inform us, 
consist of air vibrations, e. g. mu$ic (vowels) and noise (consonants). 
Now, then, if music is the language of the feelings and emotions, then 
we have a means of measuring the „emotions.” 

A thorough and detailed knowledge of the muscular mechanism 
of man will prove to us that the vibrations picked up by the sense 
organs depend upon the muscle tonus, tension, etc. Muscle fibres 
vibrate, according to Helmholtz with the number of vibrations that the 
stimuli impart. The sounds of the heart are well known and register 
differently under normal and diseased conditions. Even the sense 
organs are considered normal only when this particular muscle tonus 
is present. As the human individual is equipped with the most perfect 
of reed instruments, which is controlled by muscle tissue, we have 
a vehicle of measuring the feelings and emotions, because the vocal 


iO 

▼H 

CO 

6 

z 


CO 

1-H 

co 

o 

Z 



r- 

co 

d 


Z 



00 

CO 


d 


o 

rH 

CO 

• 

o 


z 


o 

<M 

CO 

o 

Z 







































205 


chords may be set vibrating by singing, and the tuning fork which 
imparts to it a definite number of vibrations may aid us in calculating 
the number of vibrations. 


We have therefore had A. F. pose for several series of photographs 
beginning with what is known as a—4267s vibrations and ascending 
the scale until she reached her limit 1280 vibrations: then she began 
with a—4267s vibrations descending the scale until she also reached 
the lowest limit 144 vibrations. A. F. had absolutely no ideas or feelings 
or emotion in her mind. The emphasis was placed on organic vibration, 
singing. In other words attention was directed toward the vocal 
chords without reference to thoughts or feelings. The camera snapped 
the expression while A. F. was singing, and the result may be seen in 
photographs No. 315—338. 


Photograph No. 315 — a — 

426 7* 

Vibrations 

tt 

» 

316 — b — 

480 

n 

it 

» 

317 —c — 

512 

» 

tt 

„ 

318 — d — 

576 

n 

it 

V 

319 — e — 

640 

ft 

tt 

it 

320 — f — 

7017s 

tt 

tt 

tt 

321 — g — 

768 

tt 

tt 

tt 

322 — a — 

853 

tt 

tt 

it 

323 — b — 

960 

tt 

tt 

tt 

324 —c — 

1024 

tt 

n 

a 

325 — d — 

1152 

tt 

tt 

it 

326 — e — 

1280 

it 

tt 

it 

327 — a — 

4267s 

tt 

n 

tt 

328 — g — 

384 

tt 

it 

v> 

329 — f — 

341V, 

tt 

tt 

» 

330 — e — 

320 

tt 

tt 

» 

331— d — 

288 

tt 

tt 


332 —c — 

256 

tt 

tt 

i) 

333 —b- 

2277a 

it 

tt 


334 —a — 

2137s 

it 

tt 

» 

335 — g — 

192 

it 

» 

ft 

336 — f — 

1707s 

it 

tt 

tt 

337 — e — 

160 

it 

V 


338 —d — 

144 

n 

The expression of feelings which are 

seen in the photo] 


to muscular contraction. The vowel a was appropriated while singing 
and that accounts for the smiling position of the mouth. The pleas- 
ureable emotion which is seen is no doubt due to the periodic pulse 


206 


imparted to the body and the surrounding air by the vocal chords. 
It is interesting to note that the greater the vibration, the greater the 
amount of pleasureable feeling is expressed, and as the vibrations 
diminish the pleasurable feeling also diminishes. 

A. F. then posed for five series as seen in photographs No. 339—368. 
This time each series was sung with the following emotions: pleasure, 
sadness, surprise, fear and contempt respectively. 


Vibration No. . . . • 

4267 3 

480 

512 

576 

640 

7017s 

Name. 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

Vibration Ratio . . . 

7a C 

15 / 3 c 

2 C 

7s C 

74 C 

4 /s C 

Photograph (pleasure) . 

339 

340 

341 

342 

343 

344 

„ (sadness) . 

345 

346 

347 

348 

349 

350 

„ (surprise) . 

351 

352 

353 

354 

355 

356 

» (fear) . . 

357 

358 

359 

360 

361 

362 

„ (contempt) . 

363 

364 

365 

366 

367 

468 

These photographs 

may be 

taken 

singly and 

an 

experiment 

such 


as given in Chapter VII may be duplicated. Thus, if photograph No. 339 
(4267s vibrations) represents the expression of smiling, and photograph 
No. 344 (7017s vibrations) is laughter, we may consider that we have 
a means of measuring the feelings or emotions. 

Darwin and other scientists have stated that a smile develops into 
a laugh. Our experiment in the previous chapter also proved that fact. 
Four photographs [No. 191 (86); 192 (85); 195 (70); 196 (69)] out of a 
series of six, which began with optical attention and which from smiling 
gradually developed into laughter, were given to the 100 individuals 
for verification. The judgments were unanimous when we consider that 
smiling and laughter are the expressions of the various degrees of 
pleasureable states. 

Then again, if photograph No. 357 (4267a vibrations) represents the 
expression of fear and photograph No. 362 (701 Vs vibrations) represents 
terror, then we can say with Darwin and others that terror is extreme 
fear and may be defined in terms of vibration. 

At a first glance, the expressions of the emotions as seen in photos 
No. 357—362 would seem to contradict our statement that a regular 
pulse gives us our pleasant emotion and an irregular pulse an unpleasant 
one. We should expect that singing with the vowel a (music) would 
give evidence of some pleasurable feeling which cannot be detected in 
the photos expressing different degrees of fear. However, the physicist 
would explain this by the phenomena which is known as ^forced 
vibrations." That means, in this case, that the vibrations caused by 




Plate XXVII 





















































































* . * 





























































































A 












’ _ \ 








































. 


























Si 







































1 










































■ . 









































> 


' 

















































































































































































Plate XXVIII 





































































































































































■ 



























t 1 














r * 












































v 
























. 





































*v 








> 








‘ '■ • 

. • 









































1 • 




























































■ .t 










































‘ 1 \ •' 


































































■ 



















































. i 








* 







































Plate XXIX 





m mm 


O) 

CO 

CO 

• 

o 

z 


o 

r— 

CO 

• 

o 

z 


CO 

d 

Z 


CM 

co 

c 

Z 


CO 

r- 

co 

♦ 

o 

z 


"-f 

CO 

o 

z 

































207 


the emotion of fear were stronger than the vibrations which were caused 
by the action of the vocal chords. That is just what happens when 
any strong feeling takes possession of us — the stronger one dominates. 
If, however, one feeling is not so strong as to dominate entirely, we 
may have what psychologists term „mixed feelings." Such an expression 
may be seen in photo No. 45, bitter-sweet. The inconsistencies in this 
photo were also noticed by many individuals as the judgments plainly 
prove. 

Now in order to see what happens to the expression of the feelings 
and emotions when singing with „words” instead of the vowel a, we 
had A. F. pose for another series. This time we appropriated the first 
four bars of music of „The Rosary” by E.Nevins and the text by R. C. Rogers. 


\r l w v ^ -fs-|S - LL -fr 

J .4 - 


.. j... t 

t? fcr-" T * 0 w 


The hours I spent with thee dear 

r\ i v w _x_ 

heart, 

—v i"k k h k i pprp ■ i f -p— - 

-1- 4 -- 

^— -p- — ^ —k*- 0 - 0 —W*- 

X- 


him z 4 0 0 i- 



Are as a string of pearls to me; 


Photographs No. 369—374 represent the expression of the emotions 
while singing the above music and words with the mixed feelings of 
tenderness and sadness. In photo No. 375—380 the same music and 
words were sung with the feeling of pleasure; in No. 381 384 the emotion 

was substituted for that of anger. Immediately after photo No. 385 and 
No. 386 were snapped while ennunciating the above words without music 
but with a tender feeling instead of the angry one. The expression in 
these two photos (385 and 386) show us the angry mood fused with 
the tender feeling. Photos No. 387—392 were snapped while singing the 
above music and words and the emotion of fear. 

This last experiment proves to |us that „words” are merely air 
vibrations and may be appropriated for misrepresenting facts as well as 
representing them. That is, we may use such words as .The hours I 
spent with thee dear heart, etc.” with any cenceivable feeling or emotion. 
Common experience teaches us that we may lie, speak untruthfully, make 
a false statement, in other words misrepresent facts. And just as we 
may use words to misrepresent external objects or facts, so we may use 
words to misrepresent internal facts, feelings and emotions. In other 
words, the speech mechanism may be detached and associated with any 
conceivable thought or feeling. 















208 


This subject could precipitate a lengthy discussion into which we 
will not enter. It belongs to various provinces including religion, morals 
and ethics. However, as we are interested in the psychology of feeling 
i and emotion, whether sensuous, intellectual, aesthetic, social, or religious, 
we shall say a few words on the expression of religious feelings. 

If we turn back to Chapter V, we shall find that A. F. posed for 

three series [of religious feelings. Photographs 197—202 give us the 

expression of religious feeling tinged with fear; photographs 275—281 
give religious feeling tinged with earnestness; photographs 282—286 give 
us religious feeling tinged with love. Out of these 18 photographs, 3 were 
selected and given to the 100 individuals to be verified. The records 
of the judgments and the conclusions arrived at may be found in the 
previous chapter: 

Photograph 199 (77) reverence 

„ 282 (17) religious feeling tinged with love 

„ 284 (20) religious love. 

These feelings are projected upwards toward some higher power, 
and are the result of some muscular contraction. 

It is impossible for us to have religious ideas or thoughts without 
experience; that is they may be our own experiences, or those of our 
ancestors which were made permanent through the medium of language. 
The various books published on Psychology of Religion and religious 
experiences give proofs of this fact. 

We have emphasized throughout this work that all thoughts, ideas, 
feelings, emotions, etc. are the outcome of sensory experiences and 
that the common background of all human expression are ^images” 
which may be clear or vague. These images or memories are developed 
from impressions received by an inherited, sensitive, nervous mechanism 
from external and internal environments. 

We have also emphasized the fact that „words” are symbols” and 
represent a mass of sensations which develop into what are known as 
„thoughts,” feelings, etc. The misrepresentation of facts by means 
of words, paintings or other symbols is due to either „vague images” 
or to some abnormality which must be explained by the various branches 
of psychology. 




Notes 


Notes to Chapter I 

Note 1.—What is meant by experience? 

. . Experience means experience of something foreign 
supposed to impress us, whether spontaneously or in consequence 
of our own exertions and acts. Impressions, as we well know, affect 
certain orders of sequence and coexistence, and the mind’s habits copy 
the habits of the impressions, so that our images of things assume a 
time-and-space arrangement which resembles the time-and-space arrange¬ 
ment outside. To inform outer coexistences and sequences correspond 
constant conjuctions of ideas, to fortuitous coexistences and sequences 
casual conjunctions of ideas. We are sure that fire will burn and water 
wet us, less sure that thunder will come after lightning, not at all sure 
whether a strange dog will bark at us or let us go by. In these ways 
experience moulds us every hour, and makes of our minds a mirror of 
the time-and space connections between the things in the world. The 
principle of habit within us so fixes the copy at last that we find it 
difficult even to imagine how the outward order could possibly be dif¬ 
ferent from what it is, and we continually divine from the present what 
the future is to be. These habits of transition, from one thought to 
another, are features of mental structure which were lacking in us at 
birth; we can see their growth under experience’s moulding finger, and 
we can see how often experience undoes her own work, and for an 
earlier order substitutes a new one. ,The order of experience, in 
this matter of s the time-and-space conjunctions of things, is thus an 
indisputably vera causa of our forms of thought. It is our educator, 
our sovereign helper and friend; and its name, standing for something 
with so real and definite a use, ought to be kept sacred and encumbered 
with no vaguer meaning. 

y If all the connections among ideas in the mind could be inter¬ 
preted as so many combinations of sense-data wrought into fixity in 
this way from without, then experience in the common and legitimate 
sense of the word woud be the sole fashioner of the mind. 




210 


„The empirical school in psychology has in the main contended 
that they can be so interpreted. Before our generation, it was the ex¬ 
perience of the individual only which was meant. But when one nowadays 
says that the human mind owes its present shape to experience, he means 
the experience of ancestors as well. Mr. Spencer’s statement of this is 
the earliest emphatic dne ...” Wm. James, Psy., Vol. II, p. 618 ff. 

„With regard to experience, the first thing that is tolerably clear and 
obvious is that it is a matter of impressions and the directly presen- 
tative elements in consciousness. For every sense-idea we must have 
had direct experience of its corresponding sense-impression; for every 
motor idea, a motor impression; for every idea of relation, a basis in 
practical experience. It is true that the reach of our thought exceeds 
the range of our experience; it is true that, through imagination, we 
recombine our experience in new modes; this does, however, but emphasize 
the fact that the experience itself is a matter of direct acquaintance with 
what is immediately presented to consciousness. Even our higher flights 
of thought and imagination, if they have no basis in experience, are of 
little worth ... C. Lloyd Morgan — Psy. for Teachers p. 54 ff. 

Science and experience 

„lt is plain that all the sciences have the same sort of subject-matter; 
they all deal with some phase or aspect of the world of human ex¬ 
perience .. . 

„Experience... presents itself under different aspects. The differences 
are roughly outlined, but are definite enough to serve as a starting-point. 
These different aspects engage the attention of different men. Division 
of labour is necessary, if the whole of experience is to be brought within 
the sphere of science; and men’s interests are so various that every aspect 
of experience is sure, in the long run, to find a student. As scientific 
investigation proceeds, and as the number of scientific men increases, 
more and more aspects of experience are revealed, and the sciences 
multiply. They do not exist independently, side by side, as accounts 
of separate portions of the world or of separate regions of experience, 
they overlap and coincide, describing one and the same world of ex¬ 
perience as it appears from their special standpoints ... 

„A11 human knowledge is derived from human experience; there is 
no other source of knowledge. But human experience .. . may be con¬ 
sidered from different points of view.” 

E. B. Titchener, Text-Book of Psy. p. 2—6. 


211 


How experiences consolidate 
„The ability to add meanings to impressions is always a mark of 
extended experience . .. 

„Our way of looking at things is indeed the product of past ex¬ 
periences, but past experiences are not reproduced in full in the vast 
majority of our interpretations. Past experiences are worked over, epi¬ 
tomized, condensed, or whatever you please to call it, if you will only 
recognize that our modes of getting at present meanings are wonderfully 
economical means of guiding us. They bring all the past into our present 
lives, sifted and arranged for immediate use. 

^Indeed, if you will consider carefully you willl see that such 
condensation is just as important a condition for progress as is retention. 
Suppose every time we were confronted with an impression, we had to 
go through a long process of passing in review in memory all the 

related facts out of our past. We should never progress ...” 

C. ti. Judd, Genetic Psychology for Teachers p. 48—55 ff. 

Relation of Experience to the Intellectual Life 
„The practical study and proper guidance of the intellectual life 
constitutes one of the principal problems of civilization. All efforts to 
deal with the problem must set out from the fact that the intellectual 
life is precisely the organization of experience, and that, on the other 
hand, both the expression and the very existence of the intellect are 
dependent upon the formation of rational habits of conduct, useful motOi 

adjustments. . . , . 

„The first principle is itself twofold. It means that the intellectual 
life depends, as to its genesis in each of us, upon experience, and that, 
apart from experience, we have no sound intellectual guidance. It also 
means that no experience is of importance unless it is organized, 
and that chaotic or irrationally ordered experience is useless, and may 
be worse than useless. The second principle shows, in general terms, 
how experience is organized. It is organized by teaching certain fitting 
habits of conduct (imitative processes, constructive activities, language- 
functions, habits of attentive observations), such as are at once constant, 
familiar, and accurate as to their general plastic, adaptable, and controllable, 
with reference to the novel circumstances that may arise, ihat this 
complex object may be attained in case of healthy brains is itself a 
matter of experience .. .” R °y ce > 0utlines P* 351 ff * 

Note 2. — Experience and Consciousness. 

„Consciousness is what each one of us has when he sees and hears, 
when he feels pleasure or sorrow, when he imagines or reasons, or 


212 


decides to pursue a line of action. Experience is a general word which 
may conveniently be used to cover the same group of facts.” 

C. ii. Judd, Psy. p. 13 ff. 

Note 3. — Psychology and expressive acts. 

„... In attempting to describe our mental experiences to one another 
we ... constantly make use of the names of familiar expressive functions* 
such as laughter, weeping, and the like. 

„Some of our expressive acts, like the ones just named, viewed 
apart from their names, are of instinctive origin and are only partially 
under the influence of conventions. Other expressive acts, like the use 
of the words of our mother-tongue to embody or to describe our mental 
states, are of purely conventional origin, and have only become moulded 
by slow degrees to a certain sort of uniformity as regards their relation 
to similar mental states in many people. Whether one person means 
by the word „love” a state very closely similar to the state that another 
person means by the same word may be, and often is, a very difficult 
question to decide. Yet the use of the words of our common mother- 
tongue to express our mental states, guided as this use has been since 
childhood by the effort to conform our expressions to the comprehension 
of our fellows, is often brought to a point which enables us to be 
decidedly sure that the states which many people agree in describing 
in given words are themselves in pretty close agreement With some 
caution, the same may be regarded as true, within limits, as to the 
states described in various languages by parallel words and phrases. 

„ While we are then able to make our mental states objects of 
common observation, in the sense in which the astronomers are said 
to observe the same star, we nevertheless can observe in common our 
natural and conventional, our simple and complex, our voluntary and 
involuntary, our more subtle and our less subtle motor expressions of 
our mental states, whether in our outward deeds or in the permanent 
products of these deeds (as in works of skillful art), or in our words* 
or in our momentary gestures, or, finally, in our established habits of 
behavior. The inner meaning of such expressions each of us can, by 
more or less attentive scrutiny, discover for himself. Their agreement 
in many persons enables mental facts, private though .they be, to be 
indirectly submitted to a comparative study in many people, and to 
some sort of generalization, classification, and even explanation. While 
this outward physical expression, which our mental life gets, makes 
psychology, as a comparative and more or less scientific study of mind* 
possible, our study itself is very greatly aided by a further consideration* 


213 


viz., that we not only express our minds through our movements, but 
seem to ourselves to be dependent, for at least very much of our mental 
life, upon more or less definable physical conditions, which we recognize, 
even apart from any special study, as matters well known in daily life, 
and as matters which we can study in common. Thus the private mental 
condition is noticed by its one observer to vary with the presence or 
absence of physical facts that he and his fellows can observe together. 
That one cannot see in the dark, that one feels cold at a time when 
the thermometer reveals the physical fact of a low temperature, that 
violent physical exercise makes one weary — these are facts which have, 
at the very same time, their psychical aspect manifest to one observer, 
and their physical aspect manifest to all observers. A more scientific 
study, moreover, shows us that not merely some, but all of our mental 
states vary with physical conditions of one sort or another. Now, this 
sort of union of the public and the private, of the generally accessible 
and of the purely individual, gives us many means for indirectly comparing 
and classifying mental facts and for studying their conditions in various 
people. 

„But both the expressive movements and the physical conditions 
thus far mentioned prove, upon closer examination, to have a character 
as physical processes that makes them still further the topics of a 
scientific scrutiny; for we possess, as a most important part of our 
physical structure, our nervous systems. And it may be shown that 
the expressive physical functions (acts, gestures, words, habits, etc.) in 
which our mental life gets its outward representation and embodiment, 
are all of them, as physical events, determined by physiological 
processes that occur in our nervous systems. In other words, 
the functions of the nervous system, while they include many other 
processes as well, still also include, as a portion of themselves, precisely 
those functions by which, from moment to moment, our mental states 
get expressed . . Royce, Outlines p. 7 ff. 

„It is now generally accepted that the body reflects every shade 
of psychic operation; that in all manner of mental action there is some 
physical expression. ‘All consciousness is motor’ is the brief statement 
of this important truth; every mental state somehow runs over into a 
corresponding bodily state. 

^Innocent as all this may seem, it has in reality revolutionized our 
view of expression, and of its influence upon mental states. We 
used to suppose that the bodily expression of what was going on in 
the mind was of no great importance as far as the mind was concerned,, 


214 


that in the case of fear, for instance, there would still be fear even if 
there were no palpitation of the heart, no pallor.. . But we now know 
better; we know that this outward physical expression, as we call it, 
is a most important thing; it fnakes the fear real. The feeling of what 
is occurring in our veins and muscles rolls back upon the mind and 
gives the mental states definiteness and „body.” 

G. M. Stratton, Experimental Psy. p. 269 ff. 

The Law of Expression 

„In accordance with the general doctrine of the conservation of 
energy we must believe that every stimulus that is started in sensory 
nerves by what happens at their peripheral ends must have some result. 
These stimuli cannot come to nothing. Their energy must either be 
transmitted on to other cells and eventually out through the efferent 
cells to the muscles, or else cause modifications, — do work, — in the 
cells of the central system. Just as in a storage battery electric charges 
coming in must sooner or later be discharged out or modify the battery 
itself, so the stimuli coming in to the brain must transform it or be 
conducted out and cause the muscles to contract. Every stimulus has 
its result somehow and somewhere. The function of mental life we 
saw was to influence our movements, to cause what happened to us to 
result in actions that preserved our lives and happiness. The nervous 
system we now see to be a transformer of stimuli coming in, which 
are due to our surroundings, into stimuli going out which cause our 
actions, or into modifications of the nervous system itself.” 

E. L. Thorndike, Elements of Psychology p. 162—163. 

The Term „Expression” Explained 
^Expression,’ in its widest signification, is the outward indication 
of some inherent property or function. An expression is a physical 
sign which is accepted as a criterion of the property, because the two 
are found by experience to be more or less uniformly coexisting phenomena; 
and If the manifestation of the special expression (or physical sign) is 
found with absolute uniformity, whenever the property or function in 
question is present, we may look upon that physical sign as an absolute 
proof of the presence of the property . . . 

„The physical signs observed may express impressionability, temporary 
or permanent; in the telephone the receiving plate is very impressionable, 
but the effect of the vibrations it receives is temporary; in the phono¬ 
graph the vibrations received are impressed upon tinfoil, and more or 
less permanently retained. Impressionability, temporary or permanent, 
is frequently expressed in plants, animals and in man.” 

Francis Warner, Physical Expression p. 1 ff. 


215 


Motor Expression 

„Forms of motor expression are well-nigh countless. Not only the 
movement of the hands in drawing, painting, modeling, constructing 
objects and the like; not only the movements of the vocal chords and 
mouth-parts in articulation, accent and song; but all the finer facial 
movements which constitute facial expression, every shrug of the 
shoulders, every alteration in breathing and pulse, the tug of the whole 
body in athletic exercises, labor and combat, and indeed the unnoticed, 
if not unknown, movements of muscles in the head and throat which 
perhaps accompany our most secret thoughts — all must be reckoned 
within education ... 

„Although all forms of motor expression have the same fundamental 
relations to mental development, it is convenient for practical purposes 
to separate language, spoken and written, from all other forms. The 
reasons for this separation are that language is particularly specialized, 
presenting a marked contrast to the rest, that until recently it had almost 
a monopoly of school education, and that the present problem of the 
teacher with respect to motor expression is chiefly to preserve the 
advantages of expression through words and other language symbols 
and at the same time to enrich the work of the school by the use of 
the expressive acts of play, art and industry." 

Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, p. 207 ff. 

Verbal Expression 

„The advantages of expression by words and similar symbols are; 

1. Their economy of time. 

2. Their convenience. 

3. Their special fitness to express and arouse general and abstract 
ideas and judgments and knowledge of relationships." 

The Activities of the Arts and Industries 

„The andvantages of expression by constructive and art activities are: 

1. Vigor, emphasis, life. 

2. Freedom from ambiguity, honesty. 

3. Power to express details of shape, color and arrangement. 

4. Appeal to interests in action, manipulation and the concrete." 

E. L. Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, p. 208 ff. 

Note 4. 

^Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective 
experimental brand of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction 
and control of behavior." Introspection forms no essential part of its 

Feelings and Emotions. 16 


216 


methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the 
readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of 
consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme 
of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. 
The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms 
only a part of the behaviorist’s total scheme of investigation . . .“ 

See article Psy. as the Behaviorist Views It by John B. Watson, 
Psy. Review, Vol. XX No. 2. 

Note 5. — A Primer of Psychology — E. B. Titchener, p. 5. 

Note 6. — Elements of Psychology — E. L. Thorndike, p. 1. 

Note 7. — Outlines of Psychology — J. Royce, p. 1. ff. 

Note 8. — The Nervous System. 

„The nervous apparatus consists of two sets of nerves and nerve- 
centres, which are intimately connected together and yet may be 
conveniently studied apart. These are the cerebro-spinal system and 
the sympathetic system. The former, or central nervous system, 
consists of the brain and spinal chord, and the cranial and spinal 
nerves, which are connected with the brain and chord. The sympathetic 
system comprises the chain of sympathetic ganglia, the nerves which 
they give off, and the various chords by which they are connected with 
one another and with the cerebro-spinal nerves. 

„Each system consists of nerve-centres with their connections 
among themselves, and nerves, the latter connecting the centres with 
the other parts of the body. Nerves are made up entirely of nerve- 
fibres. Nerve-centres, on the other hand, are composed of nerve-cells 
mingled with nerve-fibres. Nerve-centres with their connections form 
the mass of the brain and spinal chord; they constitute also the sympa¬ 
thetic ganglia, the ganglia belonging to spinal nerves, and the ganglia 
found in certain sensory organs such as the retina, and the internal ear.“ 

iiuxley, Elementary Physiology, p.475 ff. 

The General Functions of the Nervous* System 

„The general functions of the nervous system may be classified 
as follows: (1) To represent consciousness, at least as a connector or 
coordinator; (2) to receive and to transmit impulse „inward,“ afferently; 
(3) to direct muscular function: (a) actuating it, (b) inhibiting it; (4) to 
direct glandular function: (a) actuating it, (b) inhibiting it; (5) to direct 
tissue — nutrition: trophism.” 

Certain Sets of Nerves 

„Eorty-three pairs of nerves connect the body-tissues of man with 
his central nervous system, one of each pair going outward on each 


217 


side. Twelve of these pairs arise from the base of the brain and the 
medulla oblongata; these are called, therefore, cranial nerves. The 
other thirty-one pairs arise from the various segments of the chord- 
these are hence known as spinal nerves. Besides these, numerous 
sets of ganglia and nerves exist in the body and perform various 
vegetative functions; these ganglia and nerves are (but none too well) 
termed the sympathetic „system,“ as if they in some way were 
distinct from the rest of the nervous system. This, of course they are 
not, but rather an important portion of the common neural fabric and 
very intimately related to all its parts in many ways. If we speak of 
these three „sets“ of nerves as separate, it is only for convenience and 
because they have been thus unduly and arbitarily separated in anatomical 
treatises for many years and have so in a sense really become to the 
science sets of nerves. Functionally, however, it must be continually 
remembered they are only to a very limited degree separated from the 
rest and are combined with it to form the unity of the organism. We 
describe them separately, but in life these three sets of nerves act 
invariably more or less together. These same considerations are true 
also of the „separate w nerves — separate only anatomically. 

The Cranial Nerves.—These are twelve in number. .. 

The Spinal Nerves.—These are thirty-one in number... 

The Sympathetic Nerves. — The quasi-system of neural structures 
known by the name sympathetic, consists of three sets of ganglia and 
the fibres connecting and serving them ...” 

G. V. N. Dearborn, Text-Book on Human Physiology, p. 53 ff. 

Note 9. —Memory and Experience. 

„Oneof the most distinguishing characteristics of the higher animals, 
and especially of man, is the capacity of learning from experience . . . 

„All memory involves two events, and a condition persisting between 
them. The first event is the impression, or formation of an association; 
the persisting condition is the preservation of the modification, or the 
retention of the association; the second event is the changed reaction 
upon the recurrence of the original situation or of something resembling 
it. In place of the single first event, there may be a number of events, 
all tending to impress the same modification. In a broad sense, we 
speak of the series of events which impresses the modification as ex¬ 
perience. We speak of the same series as the act of memorizing, 
when there is a definite intention of recalling later what has been learned; 
and as practice, or training, when the object in view is the acquisition 
of some sort of skill.. The preservation of the results of experience, or 

16 * 


218 


» 

training, through an interval of time, may be called retention. What 
is retained, however, is not the newly learned fact or action; for the fact 
is not consciously present during the interval, nor is the act continuously 
performed. If we wish to avoid, for the time being, any physiological 
hypothesis as to the nature of retention, we may, with Stout*), speak 
of a disposition left behind by the modifying experience, ready to 
give rise, on suitable stimulation, to a reaction which shall show the 
influence of that experience. 

„The second event referred to above, or the reaction showing the 
effect of past experience, is perhaps better covered by the name repro¬ 
duction than by any other single word. But its character may be so 
varied, as well as so complex, that no one word is really adequate to 
designate it. In the sphere of conscious memory, it is common to distinguish 
two component parts of this event, as the recall and recognition — 
the recovery of something from past experience, and the conscious reference 
of it to past experience. These two are often indistinguishably blended 
in the remembering consciousness; but the distinction between them is 
justified by frequent instances in which either may occur without the 
other. Thus, recognition without recall occurs when, for example, a name 
refuses to come at once if spoken by someone else. Recall without 
recognition occurs in the habitual use of familiar words, and in the prac¬ 
tice of familiar acts (for these are not attended by a conscious reference 
to the past), as well as in the interesting cases of „unconscious plagiarism,” 
where the person believes himself to be inventing or composing some¬ 
thing new in literature or art, though he is really reproducing something 
previously read or seen.” 

La ad & Woodworth, Phys. Psychology p. 542 ff. 

Memory as a Biological Fact. 

„By common usage the word memory has a triple meaning: the 
conservation of certain conditions, their reproduction, and their localization 
in the past. This, however, is only a certain kind of memory, which 
we call perfect. The three elements are of unequal value: the first two 
are necessary, indispensable; the third, what in the language of the schools 
is called „recollection,” completes the act of memory, but does not con¬ 
stitute it. Suppress the first two, and memory is annihilated; suppress 
the third, and memory ceases to exist in an objective, but not in a sub¬ 
jective, sense. This third element, which is purely psychological, would 
appear, then, to be superadded to the others: they are stable; it is un¬ 
stable; it appears and disappears; it represents the extent of conscious¬ 
ness in the act of memory, and nothing more . . . 

* Analytic Psychology, 1896, 1 21 ff. 


219 


. . Physiological conditions of memory: 

1. A particular modification impressed upon the nervous elements. 

2. An association, a specific connection established between a 
given number of elements . .. 

»• • • We find ... in the nerve-cell an element which, by common 
consent, receives, stores up, and reacts. Now, an impression once 
received leaves its imprints. Hence, according to Maudsley, there is 
produced an aptitude, and with that a differentiation of the element, 
although we have no reason to think that originally it differed from 
homologous cells.” Every impression leaves a certain ineffaceable trace; 
that is to say, molecules once disarranged and forced to vibrate in a 
different way cannot return exactly to their primitive state. If I brush 
the surface of water at rest with a feather, the liquid will not take again 
the form which it had before; it may again present a smooth surface, 
but molecules will have changed places, and an eye of sufficient power 
would see traces of the passage of the feather. Organic molecules acquire 
a greater or less degree of aptitude for submitting to disarrangement. 
No doubt, if this same exterior force did not again act upon the same 
molecules, they would tend to return to their natural form; but it is 
far otherwise if the action is several times repeated. In this case they 
lose, little by little, the power of returning to their original form, and 
become more and more closely identified with that which is forced upon 
them, until this becomes natural in its turn, and they again obey the 
least cause that will set them in vibration.” 

„It is impossible to say in what this modification consists. Neither 
the microscope, nor reagents, nor histology, nor histochemistry can reveal 
it; but facts and reason indicate that it takes place ... 

„It is of the highest importance that attention should be given to 
this point; viz.: that organic memory supposes not only a modification 
of nervous elements, but the formation among them of determinate 
associations for each particular act, the establishment of 
certain dynamic affinities, which, by repetition, become as stable as 
the primitive anatomical connections. In our opinion, the important 
feature with regard to the basis of memory is not only the modification 
impressed upon each element, but the manner in which a number of 
elements group themselves together and form a complexus ... 

„Memory is a biological fact. A rich and extensive memory is not 
a collection of impressions, but an accumulation of dynamical associations, 
very stable and very responsive to proper stimuli.” 

Th. Ribot, Diseases of Memory, p. 10 ff. 


220 


Note 10. 

„In dealing with a subject so vast and so delicate, and a material 
so fragile and easily alterable as the nervous matter, the student is 
necessarily forced to depend on the different methods placed at his 
disposal by the arts and sciences of his own epoch. Hence the smallest 
technical discoveries frequently become of inestimable value;. .. 

„ ... On the other hand, the perfecting of the magnifying power of 
microscopes has been of immense service, and has permitted the spirit 
of man to advance with vast strides into regions as yet unexplored, 
where it stands face to face with those ultimate anatomical units, the 
nerve-cells, of which our predecessors scarcely caught a glimpse . .. 

„But this is not all. In this kind of research it is not sufficient to 
see for ourselves the new facts met with on our road; it is necessary to 
make others see them, to represent in faithful statements the details of nature 
we have examined, and to place the newly-registered facts beyond dispute. 

„Up to the present time it was the observer himself who portrayed, 
by means of his pencil, the objects which passed through the focus of 
his microscope. And, accordingly, we all know how widely these nominal 
drawings — even those made by masters of their profession — usually 
diverge from the truth: simply because they can never express more 
than those details which the artist has perceived and recognized, and 
a species of unconscious selection from the objects which are passing 
before his eyes. It is, then, in presence of these desiderata, as regards, 
graphic representation, in drawing made by hand that we feel the 
necessity of applying the marvelous resources now offered us by photo¬ 
graphy to the reproduction of microscopic objects. 

„The sensitized plate henceforward plays its part in the world of 
scientific investigation, in the study of the phenomena that occur in the 
world of the infinitely little, as well as in the study of those that occur 
in the world of the infinitely great-registering histological facts as well 
as astronomical phenomena, and thus becoming the impersonal and 
automatic portrayer of the most minute details that have impressed 
themselves upon it. Thus, wonderful to relate, photography, very much 
superior to drawing, not only reveals the objects which the eye perceives, 
but brings to light in addition a whole series of latent details, which 
await but the intervention of a simple lens to be successively recognized 
upon the prints when obtained. <3. Luys, The Brain and its Functions, p. 2 ff. 

Note 11 — Relation of Psychology to Other Sciences. 

„There is not a single natural phenomenon that may not, from a 
different point of view, become an object of psychology. A stone, a 


— 221 


plant, a tone, a ray of light, are, when treated as natural phenomena, 
objects of mineralogy, botany, physics, etc. In so far, however, as they are 
at the same time ideas, they are objects of psychology, for psychology seeks 
to account for the genesis of these ideas, and for their relations, both to 
other ideas and to those psychical processes, such as feelings, volitious, 
etc., which are not referred to external objects ... The ideas of which 
psychology seeks to investigate the attributes, are identical with those 
upon which natural science is based; while the subjective activities of 
feeling, emotion, and volition, which are neglected in natural science, 
are not known through special organs, but are directly and inseparably 
connected with the ideas referred to external objects. 

„The expressions outer experience and inner experience do not 
indicate different objects, but different points of view from which 
we take up the consideration and scientiftic treatment of a unitary 
experience. We are naturally led to these points of view, because every 
concrete experience immediately divides into two factors: into a content 
presented to us, and our apprehension of this content. We call the 
first of these factors objects of experience, the second, experiencing 
subject. This division indicates two directions for the treatment of 
experience. One is that of the natural sciences, which concern 
themselves with the objects of experience, thought of as independent 
of the subject. The other is that of psychology, which investigates 
the whole content of experience in its relations to the subject and also 
in regard to the attributes which this content derives directly from the 
subject." Wundt, Outlines of Psy. p. 2 ff. 

„A stick, a stone, exists and undergoes changes; that is, has 
experiences. But it is aware neither of its existence nor of these changes. 
It does not, in short, exist for itself. It exists only for some consciousness. 
Consequently the stone has no self. . . What distinguishes the facts 
of psychology from the facts of every other science is, accordingly, 
that they are conscious facts. 

„. . . A fact of physics, or of chemistry, for the very reason that 
it does not exist for itself, exists for anybody or everybody who wishes 
to observe it. It is a fact which can be known as directly and 
immediately by one as by another. It is universal, in short. Now, 
a fact of psychology does not thus lie open to the observation of all. 
It is directly and immediately known only to the self which experiences 
it. It is a fact of my or your consciousness, and only of mine or yours. 

„It may be communicated to others, but the first step in this 
communication is changing it from a psychical fact to a physical 


222 


fact. It must be expressed through non-conscious media the appearance 
of the face, or the use of sounds. These are purely external. They are 
no longer individual facts. The next step in the communication is 
for some other individual to translate this expression, or these sounds, 
into his own consciousness, fie must make them part of himself before 
he knows what they are .. . Psychology deals with the individual, or 
self, while all other sciences, as mathematics, chemistry, biology, etc., 
deal with facts which are universal, and are not facts of self, but facts 
presented to the selves or minds which know them. 

„Psychology holds therefore, a twofold relation to all other 
sciences. On the one hand, it is co-ordinated with other sciences, 
as simply having a different and higher subject-matter than they. The 
student may begin with bodies most remote from himself, in the science 
of astronomy, fie may then study the globe upon which he lives, in 
geography, geology, etc. He may then study the living beings upon it, 
botany, zoology, etc. Finally he may come to his own body, and study 
human physiology. Leaving his body, he may then study his own self. 
Such a study is psychology. Thus considered, psychology is evidently 
simply one science among Others. u John Dewey, Psychology p. 3 ff. 

Relation of Psychology to Art 

„We thus raise the question what psychology and art have to do 
with each other, in its most general form at first without any relation 
to the practical problems. If we acknowledge the question in such an 
unlimited form, we cannot avoid asking, as a preamble to the discussion, 
whether the work of art cannot be itself a manual of psychology; 
whether, especially the poet ought not to teach us psychology. We all 
have heard often that Shakespeare and Byron, Meredith and Kipling, 
are better psychologists than any scholar on the academic platform, or 
that Henry James has written even more volumes on psychology than 
his brother William. That is a misunderstanding. The poet, so far as 
he works without poetic tools, is never a psychologist; if modern 
novelists of a special type sometimes introduce psychological analysis, 
they make use of means which do not belong to pure art; it is a 
mixed style which characterizes decadence. 

„It is true that discussion would be meaningless if we were ready 
to call every utterance which has to do with mental life psychology. 
Psychology does not demand abstract scientific forms; it may be offered 
in literary forms, yet it means always a special kind of treatment of 
mental life. It tries to describe and to explain mental life as a 
combination of elements. The dissolution of the unity of consciousness 
into elementary processes characterizes psychology, just as natural 


223 


science demands the dissection of physical objects; the appreciation of 
a physical object as a whole is never natural science, and the inter¬ 
pretation and suggestion of a mental state as a whole is never psychology. 
The poet, as well as the historian and the man of practical life, has 
this interpretation of the whole as his aim; the psychologist goes 
exactly the opposite way. He asks about the meaning, the psychologist 
about the constitution; and the psychological elements concern the poet 
as little as the microscopical cells of the tree interest the landscape 
painter. The tree in the painting, ought, indeed, to be botanically correct; 
it ought not to appear contradictory to the results of the botanist’s 
observations, but these results themselves need not appear in the 
painting. In the same way, we demand that the poet create men who 
are psychologically correct, — at least in those cases in which higher 
aesthetical laws do not demand the psychological impossibilities of 
fairyland, which are allowed like the botanical impossibilities of conven¬ 
tionalized flowers or the anatomical impossibilities of human figures 
with wings. We detest the psychologically absurd creations of the stage 
villain and the stage hero in third-class melodrama, the psychological 
marionettes of newspaper novels, and the frequent cases of insanity in 
poor fiction, for which the schooled psychologist would make at once 
the diagnosis that there must be simulation in them, as the insane 
never act so. We demand this psychological correctness, and the great 
poet instinctively satisfies it so fully that the psychologist may acknowledge 
the creations of poetry as substantial material for the psychical study 
of the living man. The psychologist believes the poet, and studies 
jealousy from Othello, and love from Romeo, and neurasthenia from 
Hamlet, and political emotions from Caesar; but the creation of such 
lifelike men is in itself in no way psychology. 

„The poet creates mental life in suggesting it to the soul of the reader; 
only the man who decomposes it afterward is a psychologist. The poet 
works as like works; the child who smiles and weeps causes us to think of 
pleasure and pain too, but it offers us no psychological understanding of 
pleasure and pain.” Hugo Miinsterberg, Psychology and Life, p. 148 ff. 

Note 12. (a) — Abnormal Psychology (I. H. Coriat) p. 113 ff. 

(b)_ 5j F r0 m time immemorial the dream has been the subject 
of much interest and speculation. Since the early Greek period numerous 
theories have been propounded and entertained in the realms of religion 
and of science, but not until within recent years has investigation of 
the dream proceeded on a true psychological basis. It would be super¬ 
fluous and quite impossible to review heie the many curious theories 


224 


held at different epochs in the world’s history concerning the dream; suffice 
it to say that ancients and moderns differ very little in their views . . . 

„Modern psychology has continued the work of ancient writers 
and as a result we have numerous valuable contributions to the problem 
of the dream; numerous attempts have been made to show the relation 
of the dream to normal and abnormal life, but so far as 1 know no 
author has solved the problem of the dream so ingeniously and success¬ 
fully as Professor Freud ... in developing his psychology of the 
psychoneuroses Freud found that the dream plays a very important part 
in the psyche of the individual. The dream is not a senseless jumble, but 
a perfect mechanism and when analyzed it is found to contain the ful¬ 
filment of a wish; it always treats of the inmost thoughts of personality 
and.for that reason gives us the best access to the unconscious. No psycho¬ 
analysis is complete, nay possible, without the analysis of dreams . . . 

„In order to understand the mechanism of dreams it will be 
necessary to bear in mind Freud’s conception of repression. To forget 
is a part of human nature; this is so obvious that we never even stop 
to think about it. Yet when we examine the things forgotten we soon 
find that there is a method in forgetting; our forgetting seems to follow 
a kind of selection, it was Freud who first called attention to the 
motives of forgetting. If we exclude organic brain disturbances, we 
find that we are most apt to forget painful or disagreeable impressions.” 

A. A. Brill, Psychoanalysis. 

Note 13. 

„. . . Angelo Mosso (b. 1846) . . . applied with great success the 
graphic method of registration to the study of the movements of the 
brain and of the circulation during sleep. He made observations on 
three persons who had lost a portion of the cranial vault and in whom 
there was a soft pulsating cicatrix. They were a woman of thirty-seven 
years of age, a man of thirty-seven years, and a child of about twelve 
years. By special arrangements, Mosso took simultaneous tracings of 
the pulse at the wrist, of the beat of the heart, of the movements of 
the wall of the chest in respiration, and of the movements of the denuded 
brain. Further, by means of the plethsymograph, an instrument of 
Mosso’s own invention, he obtained tracings showing changes in the 
volume of the hand and forearm; and he succeeded in showing that 
during sleep there is a diminished amount of blood in the brain, and 
at the same time an increased amount in the extremities. He showed 
further that there are frequent adjustments in the distribution of the 
blood, even during sleep. Thus a strong stimulus to the skin or to a 
sense organ — but not strong enough to awaken the sleeper — caused 


225 


a contraction of the vessels of the forearm, an increase of blood pressure, 
and a determination of blood towards the brain; and, on the other hand* 
on suddenly awakening the sleeper, there was a contraction of the 
vessels of the brain, a general rise of pressure, and an accelerated 
flow of blood through the hemispheres of the brain. So sensitive is 
the whole organism in this respect, even during sleep, that a loudly 
spoken word, a sound, a touch, the action of light or any moderate 
sensory impression modified the rhythm of respiration, determined a 
contraction of the vessels of the forearm, increased the general pressure 
of the blood, caused an increased flow to the brain, and quickened the 
frequency of the beats of the heart. These observations show how a 
physiological explanation can be suggested of the influence of external 
impressions in modifying the dreams of a sleeper. Further, Mosso 
found that during very profound sleep these oscillations disappear: the 
pulsatory movements are uniform and are not affected by sensory 
impressions, and probably this condition exists when there is the 
absolute unconsciousness of a „dead” sleep. By such methods as have 
been employed by Mosso, three movements of the brain have been 
observed — (1) pulsations, corresponding to the beats of the heart; 
(2) oscillations, or longer waves, sometimes coinciding with the heart 
beats, or more generally consisting of longer festoons, carrying each 
a number of smaller waves, and believed to correspond generally to 
the respiratory movements; and (3) undulations, still longer and less 
marked elevations and depressions, first clearly observed by Mosso, 
and believed by him to indicate rhythmic contractions of the vessels 
of the pia mater and of the brain. This view is in keeping with the 
observations of Franz Cornelius Donders (b. 1818), Adolf Kussmaul 
(b. 1822) Tenner and others on changes of calibre observed in the 
cerebral vessels, and with the experiments of many physiologists, 
showing that the vessels of the pia mater, like other vessels, are 
controlled by the vasomotor system of nerves . . . 

w All. the phenomena of sleep point to a diminished excitability of 
the cerebral nerve-centres and of the spinal chord .. . The only nerve- 
centres that do not sleep are those absolutely essential to life, such as 
those connected with the heart, with respiratory movements, and with 
the distribution of blood by the vaso motor arrangements; and Mosso s 
experiments indicate that even these have a certain amount of repose 
in profound sleep.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

Note 14. — Fear, Angelo Mosso. 

Note 15. —Literary Essays, James Russell Lowell, p. 160 ff. 

Note 16. — Elements of Psychology, E. L. Thorndike, p. 92. 


Notes to Chapter II 

Note 1. — Introduction to Psychology; Loveday & Green, p. 37 ff. 

Note 2. (a) — „Who can tell what a baby thinks? 

Who can follow the gossamer links 

By which the manikin feels his way 
Out from the shore of the great umknown, 

Blind, and wailing, and alone, 

Into the light of day?” 

Thus does George V. N. Dearborn introduce his observations on the 
first three years of a child, the first days of which, we will reproduce 
here. 

5,1 st Day. L’s respiration was quickly established; her cries at first 
were only faint; the eyes opened gradually within a few minutes after 
birth and were perfectly coordinated from the first. She cried very little 
first day. Suction on the fingers and side of the fist was very strong 
and lively from the first hour. 20th hour: the eyes apparently are 
sensitive to light, and seem to follow slowly the moving hand and 
fingers. She was readily quieted when gently crying by „trotting” or 
even holding a hand or rubbing the forehead. 

„The stroking of her rather pug nose causes in a second or two 
slow blinking of the eyes. A mere touch on the upper lip or a stronger 
one on the lower lip causes the immediate screwing-up of the mouth. 

I noticed yawning once, a sneeze twice and a gentle shaking of the 
head once. She would not nurse the first day. She seems to be left- 
handed at present, sucking the left hand more often than the right. The 
fingergrasp reflex is strong and quick. 

2nd Day. L. took „proper nourishment” for a short time only. She 
slept most of the day. She sneezed once or twice. There are no signs 
of hunger. There is no more lack of eye-coordination today than there 
was yesterday. 

3rd Day. She nurses vigorously today. The bright light necessary 
for her „snap-shot portrait made her general movements much more 
lively, but she kept her eyes mostly shut. She hiccoughed for a few 
seconds. 



227 


5th Day. She smiled dimly when tickled on the cheek or under 
the chin. 

6 th Day. The eyes close (reaction-time, one second) from a sudden 
bright light in the eyes, and her head turns away to some extent. Some 
facial „signs of pain” were produced by this bright light from a window. 
She was easily quieted by rubbing the hands and head. 

„She seems to hear the tick of a watch held close to the ear, and 
tends to follow it with the eyes, but not invariably. She seemed to 
hear and notice a siren-whistle out on the Hudson River, for she stopped 
moving; she acted similarly from the sound of a mouth-wistle. 

7th Day. She smiled spontaneously” when half asleep after nursing. 
L stretched the whole body and then yawned several times. A low, 
pleasant whistle caused an incipient smile. The facial emotional expression 
was marked after a meal by its variety. The reaction of pain was 
especially complete, and the smile somewhat less perfect. She slept 
most of the day.” End of First Week. 

G. V. N. Dearborn, Moto-Sensory Development, p. 1—7. 

(b) According to Preyer, the child shows the following manifestations 
during the first seven days of its existence. 

Senses 

Sight: Five minutes after birth, slight sensibility to light. 

Second day, sensitiveness to light and candle. 

Sixth and Seventh days, pleasure in moderately bright daylight.. . 
Sleeping babes close the eyes more tightly when light falls on the eyes. 
Movements of eyelids. — First to eleventh day, shutting and opening 
of eyes. Irregular movements . . . 

Pleasure shown by opening eyes wide, displeasure by shutting them 
tightly; 

Movements of eyes: — First day, to right and left. 

Hearing: First days, all children are deaf. Fourth day, child hears noises 
like clapping of hands, etc. 

Feeling: Sensitiveness to contact, — at birth, Second and third days, 
starting at gentle touches, etc. 

Sensibility to Temperature: At birth, cooling unpleasant. Warm bath 
agreeable. Seventh day, eyes opened wide with pleasure from bath. 
Taste: Sensibility — At birth. First day, sugar licked. Second day, 
milk licked. Differences among newly born ... 

Comparison of Impressions: During nursing period child prefers 
sweet taste. Second day, child accepts food that on the fourth 
he refuses. 


228 


Smell: Faculty at Birth. — Strong — smelling substances produce mimetic 
movement. 

Organic Sensations and Emotions — Pleasure — First day, in nursing;, 
in the bath; in the sight of objects; in the light. 

Discomfort: First days, from cold, wet, hunger, tight clothing, etc. 
Hunger: First days, manifested in sucking movements, crying, restlessness. 
Cry differs from that of pain or of satisfaction. Other signs 
of hunger — 

Fatigue — From crying and nursing. 

Will 

Impulsive Movements. Outstretching and bending of arms and 
legs just after birth; contractions, spreading and bending of fingers. 
Grimaces. Wrinkling of forehead. First day, arms and legs take same 
position as before birth. 

Reflex Movements: — In case of light — impressions. First cry. 
Sneezing of newly-born, coughing, ditto. Seventh day, yawning. First 
day, spreading of toes when sole of foot is touched, etc. Instinctive 
Movements. First to third day, hands to face. Fifth day, fingers clasp 
firmly, toes do not. Sixth day, hands go into eyes .. . Sucking . . . etc. 

W. Prever, Development of the Intellect. 

Note 3. —Temperaments in Infancy. 

„... there are children who of themselves, apart from any influence 
good or bad, of those nearest to them, are easily frightened; and there 
are others hard to frighten. Timidity depends on temperament, and 
temperament, through the excitability of the nerves of sense and the 
capacity of the central nervous organs, determines substantially whether 
the impressions received by the organs of sense shall persist for a long 
or a short time, with intensity or with less tenacity. 

„These varieties of aptitude and of organic memory are the basis 
of the distinction I have elsewhere discussed in detail between the four 
temperaments—a distinction that was made nearly two thousand years 
ago —the different temperaments being classed as the sanguine, the 
choleric, the melancholy, and the phlegmatic . . . Just as the twig is 
bent, the tree s inclined, is doubtless true, but what we are concerned 
with here is the period before the bending. And it is of practical impor¬ 
tance in this matter to know that the four temperaments, which have 
for a long time been accepted without any one’s being able to say why, 
may be distinguished in advance quite naturally on physiological grounds. 
In two of them the excitability, and therefore the sensitiveness to im- 


229 


pressions of various kinds, is great; in two of them it is small. The 
first is the case with the choleric and the sanguine, the second with 
the melancholy and the phlegmatic. Again, the duration of the after¬ 
effect of every impression, the tenacity with which the memory-image 
is retained, is, in the melancholy and the choleric, surprising, the organic 
change in the brain accompanying it being probably considerable; in 
the other two, the sanguine and the phlegmatic, this effect is slight. Thus 
we get the following classification, which is especially to be borne in 
mind in our judgment of the child no less than in our judgment of the 
growing youth, in connection with education, and particularly in the 
forming of character and in instruction, both physical and intellectual:. 


Excitability After-effect 

Sanguine Great Small 

Phlegmatic Small Small 

Choleric Great Great 

Melancholy Small Great 


W. Preyer, The Infant Mind. 

Note 4.—Sante de Sanctis, Die Mimik des Denkens. 

Note 5. 

(a) „We have seen that even in perceptual processes where the sense 
organs are most obviously engaged, the effects of past experience are 
very conspicuous. This fact will suggest at once the probable difficulty 
of establishing any absolute line of demarcation between processes of 
perception and those which, in common untechnical, language we call 
memory and imagination . . . 

„Our study of habit brought out clearly the strong tendency of the 
nervous system to repeat again and again any action with which it has 
once successfully responded to a stimulus. The undoubted retention 
by the nervous organism of the modifications impressed upon it by the 
impact of the physical world, in what we call experience, is commonly 
designated „organic memory,” and forms beyond question the physio¬ 
logical basis of conscious memory. 

„The image is . .. the primary psychical process by means of which 
we bring into mind at once the experiences of the past. It is also the 
means by which we forecast the future .. .” Angell, Psy. p. 196 ff. 

(b) The impressions of smell and taste, our visceral sensations, our 
pleasant or painful states, our emotions and passions, like the perceptions 
of sight and hearing, can leave memories behind them. This is a matter of 
common experience on which it is needless to insist. These residua, fixed 
in an organism, may return into the consciousness; and it is known that 
images may be revived in two ways — by provocation, or spontaneously. 


230 


.. The actual sensation of fatigue, of the smell of a lily, of the 
taste of pepper, of pain in a certain tooth appear to me as the repetition 
of sensations formerly experienced, similar to the present one, or at least 
apparently identical, so that, consequently, it revives them." 

Th. Ribot, The Psychology of the Emotions, p 141 ff. 

(c) „But bodily effects may be produced not only by real, but by 
imaginary objects. We have seen that every emotion implies an idea. 
This idea is very often of a sensible object, that is, of an object made 
known to us by the senses. Now it seems to be pretty well established 
that there are organs of the brain necessary in order to the perception ! 
of material objects. Smell, as a psychical act, is not in the nostrils, 
nor hearing in the ear, nor touch in the nerves, nor vision in the eye. 
There is need of a cerebral action in order to a conscious sensation, 
and in order to a perception of the objects. It is very generally 
acknowledged that the senses may have a common centre of sensation, 

a sensorium in the brain, or more probably, that each sense has a local ;f 
centre. Physiologists are not quite agreed as to what these centres are. ’ 
It is enough for our present purpose that there is either a general centre, ■■ 
or that there are special centres . ..” 

James McCosh, The Emotions, p. 99 ff. 

(d) The Emotions and The Will; Alex. Bain, p. 89 ff. 





Notes to Chapter III 

Note 1. 

Le Brun, Conferences sur l’expression des differents caracteres des 
passions. Paris, 1667. 


Sir Charles Bell, Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression, 
1st Edition 1806. 


„The experiments of G. B. A. Duchenne, (Mecanisme de la physiog¬ 
nomic humaine, Paris, 1862) showed that by the use of electricity the 
action of the separate muscles could be studied and by the aid of 
photography accurately represented. These observations confirmed by 
experimental demonstration, the hypothetical conclusions of Bell. The 
machinery of expression having thus been indicated, the connexion of 
the physical actions and the psychical state was made the subject of 
speculation by Herbert Spencer (Psychology, 1855). These speculations 
were reduced to a system by Darwin (Expression of Emotions, 1872), 
who formulated and illustrated the following as fundamental physiog¬ 
nomical principles: — 

„(1) Certain complex acts are of direct or indirect service under 
certain conditions of the mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain 
sensations or desires; and whenever the same states of mind are induced 
the same sets of actions tend to be performed, even when they have 
ceased to be of use. (2) When a directly opposite state of mind is 
induced to one with which a definite action is correlated, there is a 
strong and involuntary tendency to perform a reverse action. (3) When 
the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated in excess, 
and is transmitted in definite directions, depending on the connexions 
of nerve-cells and on habit. 

„The last of these propositions is adversely criticized by P. Mante- 
gazza as a truism, but it may be allowed to stand with the qualification 
that we are ignorant concerning the nature of the influence called 
„nerve-force...” To the foregoing may be added the following additional 
propositions, so as to form a more complete expression of a physiog¬ 
nomical philosophy: — (4) Certain muscles concerned in producing the 
skin-folds become strengthened by habitual action, and when the skin 
diminishes in elasticity and fullness with advancing age, the wrinkles 

Feelings and Emotions. 17 


232 


at right angles to the course of the muscular fibres become permanent 
(5) To some extent habitual muscular action of this kind may, by affecting 
local nutrition alter the contour of such bones and cartilages as are 
related to the muscles of expression. (6) If the mental disposition and 
proneness to action are inherited by children from their parents, it may 
be that the facility in, and disposition towards, certain forms of expression 
are in like manner matters of heredity. 

„Illustrations of these theoretic propositions are to be found 
in the works of Bell, Duchenne and Darwin, and in the later publications 
of Theodor Piderit, Mimike und Physiognomik (1886) and Mantegazza, 
Physiognomy and Expression (1890), to which the student may be 
referred for further information.” 

Encyclopedia Britannica Art. Physiognomy. 

Also see Physical Expression, Francis Warner (1855); and Schulze’s 
Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy, translated by R. Pintner (1912). 

Note 2. 

J. Loeb, in his article, writes: „The contents of life ... are wishes 
and hopes, efforts and struggles .. . disappointments and suffering. 
And this inner life should be amenable to physico-chemical analysis. 
In spite of the gap which separates us to-day from such an aim, I believe 
that it is attainable. (Pop. Sci. Mo. Jan. 1912, p. 247.) 

Note 3. 

Essays Philosophical and Psychological, In Honor of William James- 
»Reactions and Perceptions” by J. McKeen Cattel p. 569. 



Notes to Chapter VI 

Note 1. 19 were upper classmen of Columbia College 

28 were upper classwomen of Barnard College 
8 were upper classwomen of Normal College 
40 were upper men & women of Teachers (Artists, etc.) 

5 we re Psychologists 
100 individuals 
Note 2. — Enthusiasm: 

„ Intense and rapturous feeling felt or displayed, either habitually or 
in a particular case, by individuals or by masses, especially as exhibited 
in ardent zeal for a person, principle or cause; zealous admiration; 
earnestness; fervor; as enthusiasm for art." Standard Dictionary. 

(1) „.. . ecstacy. (2) Enkindled and kindling fervor of soul; ardent 

and imaginative zeal or interest. Lively manifestation; of joy or zeal. 

Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 

(2) „. . . A state of impassioned emotion; transport;.. . 

(3) Strong excitement of feeling on behalf of a cause or a subject; ..." 

Webster’s New International Dictionary. 

Synonyms and related terms. 

Enthusiasm _ 


Y 

Ardor 

Y 

Devotion 

Y 

y Ecstasy 

T 

Great 

eagerness 

love 

rapture 

Admiration 

earnestness 

affection 

bliss 

wonder plus delight 

excitement 

attachment 

delight 

amazement 

extravagance 

attraction 

joy 

surprise 

fanaticism 

fondness 

gladness 


fervency 

liking 

happiness 


fervor 

regard 

pleasure 


frenzy 

tenderness 

enjoyment 


inspiration 




intensity 




passion 




vehemence 




warmth 


New Standard Dictionary 

zeal 


Webster’s New International Dictionary 

ardent interest 


dames C. Fernald Synonyms 

transport 


Geo. Crabb’s 

English Synonyms. 

17* 

exultation 











Note 3. — Pleasure: 

„Pleasure is a term of most extensive use; it embraces one grand 
class of our feelings and sensations, and is opposed to nothing but 
pain;'which embraces the second class or division; joy and delight are 
but modes or modifications of pleasure, differing as to the degree, and 
as to the objects or sources. Pleasure, in the peculiar acceptation, is 
smaller in degree than either joy or delight, but in its universal acceptation 
it defines no degree; the term is indifferently employed for the highest 
as well as the lowest degree; whereas joy and delight can be employed 
only to express a positively high degree. Pleasure is produced by any 
or every object; everything by which we are surrounded acts upon us 
,#nore or less to produce it; we may have pleasure either from without 
or from within; pleasure from the gratification of our senses, from the 
exercise of our affections, or the exercise of our understanding; pleasure 
from our own selves, or pleasure from others: but joy is derived from 
the exercise of our affections; and delight either from the affections 
or the understanding. In this manner we destinguish the pleasures of 
the table, social pleasures, or intellectual pleasures; the joy of meeting 
an old friend; or the delight of pursuing a favorite object. 

„Pleasures are either transitory or otherwise: joy is in its nature 
commonly short of duration, it springs from particular events; it is 
pleasure at high tide but it may come and go as suddenly as the events 
which caused it; one’s joy may be awakened and damped in quick 
succession. Delight is not so fleeting as joy, but it may be less so 
than simple pleasure; delight arises from a state of outward circumstances 
which is naturally more durable than that of joy; but it is a state 
seldomer attainable and not so much at one’s command as pleasure.” 

English Synonyms, Geo. Crabb. 


Synonyms of Pleasure. 


ecstasy 

glee 

amusement 

transport 

joy 

gaiety 

exaltation 

triumph 

mirth 

bliss 

felicity 

cheer 

blessedness 

gladness 

comfort 

rapture 

happiness 

mnhw'nent 

delight 

enjoyment 

ion 

hilarity 

fun 

tion 

jollity 

merriment 



Webster, 

rnald, Crabb, 


and S< 

ct. of Syn. 


— 235 — 

Note 4. Suspicion and related terms: 

Photographs No. 10, 13, 16, 18, 68 and 83. 

„In human fear and suspicion, the nostril is inflated, and the eye 
has that backward, jealous, and timid character which we find in the 
horse, and in the gentler classes of animals.” 

Anatomy of Expression, Charles Bell, p. 128 ff. 

7 th Edition 1888. 

Expression of personal Feelings, Fear, Distrust. 

„Between love of self, above all a concentric and centripetal energy, 
the expression of which is consequently negative, and fear, we find 
distrust, which is the beginning of fear, a movement of the egoism 
which awakens to face an imminent or suspected danger. The same 
may be said of suspicion, which is the brother of distrust, and the 
expression of which is purely intellectual, with a scarcely perceptible 
tinge of preparation for defence.” 

Physiognomy & Expression, Mantegazza p. 133. 

Suspicion and related terms. 

surmise 
conjecture 
supposition 
guess 

want of confidence 
glimmer 

momentary knowledge 
glimmering 
timidity 

suspicion (a feeling of mistrust or 
fear) 

Standard Dictionary. 

Webster’s New „ 

Soule’s „ & synonyms. 

Crabb’s Synonyms. 

Note 5. — Contempt and related terms. 

„Scorn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, 
excepting that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Disgust 
is a sensation rather more distinct in its nature, and refers to something 
revolting, primarily in relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived 


Suspicion 


diffidence 

uncertainty 

skepticism 

perplexity 

misgiving 

indecision 

mistrust 

incredulity 

doubt 

disbelief 

distrust 

hesitancy 

jealousy 

hesitation 

fear 

irresolution 


question 

suspence 

unbelief 

suspicion 





236 


or vividly imagined; and secondarily to anything which causes a similar 
feeling, through the sense of smell, touch or even of eyesight. Nevertheless, 
extreme contempt, or as it is often called loathing contempt, hardly differs 
from disgust. These several conditions of the mind are, therefore, nearly 
related; and each of them may be exhibited in many different ways .. . 

„The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements 
about the nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements, when 
strongly pronounced, indicate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned 
up, which apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip; or 
the movement may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose ... 
In extreme cases, as Dr. Piderit remarks, we protrude and raise both 
lips, or the upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a valve, 
the nose being thus turned up . . .* 

Darwin, Expression of the Emotions, p. 254 ff. 
Scorn: Extreme contempt; haughty disregard; disdain. 

Webster’s New International Diet. 

Synonyms of Contempt. 

disdain mockyer neglect 

scorn contumely disregard 

derision slight 

Expression of contempt: Sneer, scoff, gibe, jeer. 

Synonyms of Disgust. 

loathing hatred dislike disrelish 

abomination abhorrence aversion distaste 

repugnance antipathy detestation nausea 

Note 6. —Surprise and related terms. 

.Attention, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise; and this 
into astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame 
of mind is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows 
being slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, they are 
raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely open. 
The raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes should 
be opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces transverse 
wrinkles across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes and mouth 
are opened corresponds with the degree of surprise felt; but these move¬ 
ments must be co-ordinated; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows 
only slightly raised, results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne 
has shown in one of his photographs. On the other hand, a person may 
often be seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his eyebrows.” 

Darwin, Expressions of the Emotions, p. 278. 


237 


amazement 

a 


wonder 

surprise 

fear 

admiration 

consternation 

alarm 

astonishment 

awe 

bewilderment 

confusion 

perplexity 


I amazement 
dismay 
consternation 

Surprise {breathless interest 


T 

wonder 


astonishment 

amazement 

admiration 

stupor 

fascination 

surprise 

awe 


terror 

horror 

dread 

fright 

alarm 

awe 


reverence 
veneration 
reverential fear 
dread . . . fear etc. 
solemn exaltation 
admiration 
adoration 
wonder 


Webster's New Internatinnal Dictionary. 

New Standard Dictionary. 

Charles Darwin. 

7 Roget’s Thesaurus. 

.. if the search after some truth useful to his fellow-creatures, 
if the seeds of a generous action exacts the employment of his faculties 
his frequent looks towards Heaven seem to implore its assistance, his 
muscles follow the impulse of his mind, and conspire to overcome with 

it the obstacles opposed to his progress. 11 

Le Brun, Conferences sur I’expression des differents caracteres des passions. 








Noto 8. — Smiling — Laughter. 

»• • • Between a gentle laugh and a broad smile there is hardly any 
difference, excepting that in smiling no reiterated sound is uttered, 
though a single rather strong expiration, or slight noise — a rudiment 
of a laugh — may often be'heard at the commencement of a smile ... 

„A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the 
development of a laugh." Expression of the Emotions; 

Darwin p. 210, 


„A11 the different manifestations of the comic, the witty, and the 
ridiculous belong psychologically to that particular emotional side of our 
being which we class under joy. Whatever is joyful awakens in us, 
if not intense laughter, at least a smile, however flitting .. . 

„Play that arouses the emotion of joy gives rise to smiles and 
laughter . . We may, therefore, lay down the law that all unrestrained 
spontaneous activities of normal functions give rise to the emotion of 
joy with its expression of smiles and laughter . .. 

Boris Sid is, The Psychology of Laughter p. 2 ff. 


„Laughter, as I conceive of it, fastens upon something human . .. 

„The facial expression is approximately the same in the broad 
smile and the gentle laugh. It is only when laughter grows immoderate 
that there is a marked addition of other features, viz., the strong con¬ 
traction of the muscles about the eyes leading to frowning, and the 
shedding of tears. How closely connected are smiling and moderate 
laughing may be seen by the tendency we experience when we reach 
the broad smile and the fully open mouth to start the respiratory 
movements of laughter. 

»The enjoyment that moves us to laughter must, it is evident, 
amount to gladness or joy. And this means first of all, that the 
pleasurable consciousness must come in the form of a large accession, 
and, for a moment at least, be ample, filling soul and body." 

J. Sully, An Essay on Laughter. 


r Expression of pleasure: laughter, giggle, titter, snigger, chuckle, 
burst of laughter, shout of laughter, roar of laughter, peal of laughter, 

shake with laughter, hold both sides with laughter etc_“ 

Roget’s Thesaurus. 


239 


Note 9. — Fear is the generic term. 


Synonyms. 


affright 

disquietude 

panic 

alarm 

dread 

terror 

apprehension 

fright 

timidity 

awe 

horror 

trembling 

consternation 

intimidation 

tremor 

dismay 

misgiving 

solicitude 

trepidation 


Fern aid, Crabb, Webster’s New Int. Diet. 

„The word ,fear’ seems to be derived from what is sudden and 
dangerous; and that of terror from the trembling of the vocal organs 
and body. I use the word ,terror’ for extreme fear ...“ 

Darwin, Expression of the Emotions p. 289 f. 

„.,The painful emotion characteristic of the apprehension of evil;. .. 
apprehension; alarm, or dread; in its more intense forms fright or terror." 

Webster’s, New Int. Diet. 

„1 should apply the name of terror to that kind of fear in which 
there is a strong working of the imagination, and which is therefore 
peculiar to man. 

„When mingled with astonishment, terror is fixed and mute ... 

„Horror differs from both fear and terror, although more nearly 
allied to the last than to the first. It is superior to both in this, that 
it is less imbued with personal alarm. It is more full of sympathy with 
the sufferings of others, than engaged with our own ...” 

Chas. Bell, The Anatomy of Expression, p. 152 ff. (7th Ed.) 

Note 10. 

Hate: „Intense aversion, with malignity or ill will when exercised 
toward a person, excessive dislike; hatred; detestation. 

Hatred: A sustained feeling of bitter aversion or dislike, generally 
combined with a desire to injure, destroy or get rid of its object; enmity. 

Synonyms of Hate or Hatred: 


anger 

hate 

rancor 

animosity 

ill-will 

repugnance 

antipathy 

malevolence 

resentment 

aversi on 

malice 

revenge 

enmity 

grudge 

malignity 

hostility 

spite 




240 


Hate or hatred as implied to person, is intense aversion, usually 
with disposition to injure. Anger is sudden and brief. Hatred is lingering 
and enduring. 

Synonyms of Anger. 


Animosity 

fury 

irritation 

resentment 

choler 

impatience offense 

temper 

displeasure 

indignation passion 

wrath 

exasperation 

ire 

rage 


> 11. — Pain is the 

generic 

term. 



Synonyms of Pain 


Physical Pain 


Mental 

Pain 

pain 


pain 

distress 

suffering 


suffering 

bitterness 

sufferance 


sufferance 

woe 

bodily pain 


mental pain 

desolation 

physical pain 


trouble 

shock 

„ suffering 


mental suffering 

mortification 

» Pain 


mental pain 

blow 

ache 


ache 

worry 

discomfort 


discomfort 

chagrin 

shooting pain 


displeasure 

dejection 

sharp pain 


smart 

depression 

throbbing pain 


heart ache 

despondency 

headache 


gnawing grief 

discontent 

hurt 


affliction 

misery 

sore 


grief 

torment 

anguish 


sadness 

torture 

agony 


sorrow 

pang 

gnawing pain 


anguish 

prostration 

burning pain 


agony 

wretchedness 

piercing pain 


broken-heart 

bleeding-heart 

soreness 


despair 

aching-heart 

Darwin states that , 

,As soon 

i as the sufferer is fully conscious that 


nothing can be done, despair or deep sorrow takes the place of frantic 
grief. The sufferer sits motionless, or gently rocks to and fro; the 
circulation becomes languid; respiration is almost forgotten, and deep 
sighs are drawn. All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon 
follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes... Pain, if severe, soon 
induces extreme depression or prostration.” 


Index 


Admiration, 188, 237 
Affection, 46 

Amazement, 188, 184, 185, 186, 187, 193, 
233, 237 

Amusement 82, 182, 197 
Anatomist, 30 

Angell, 9, 25, 47, 51, 62, 87, 229 
Anger, 38, 179, 239 
Anger, righteous, 144 
Anger, idea of, 86 
Angry mood, 179 
Annoyance, 124, 179 
Apprehension, 239 
Art, 22, 203, 222 
Association, 6, 45 

Astonishemt, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 193, 
233, 239 
Atoms, 55 

Attention, 10,19, 81, 83, 103,107, 123, 172 
Attention and consciousness, 87, 88, 103 
and emotion, 91 
nonvoluntary, 19, 94 
optical, 106 
and pleasure, 151, 198 
and suspicion, 196 
and thought, 106 
and volition, 51, 91 
Aversion, 178 
Awe, 190, 237 
Awful, 192 

Bain, 95, 47, 97, 230 
Baldwin, 10, 88 

Bell, HI, 52, 71, 231, 232, 235, 239 
Blake, 75 
Bliss, 113 
Brill, 224 


Cannon, 47, 97, 98, 105 

Carpenter, 21, 47 

Cattel, 66, 232 

Cells, 5, 31, 32, 39 

Centre for mimic movements, 95 

Cerebrum, 34, 66 

Cerebellum, 34 

Chemist, 30, 54 

Circulation, 73 

Common sense point of view, 40 
Complex, normal, 99 
abnormal, 99 
emotional, 99, 101 
intellectual, 101 
volitional 101 
Concept, 6, 45 

Consciousness, 2, 9, 19, 21, 22, 64, 86, 
87, 88, 102, 205, 211 
Contempt, 126, 174, 206, 235 
Conventional language, 67, 71, 84 
Coquetry, 154, 164 
Coriat, 223 
Coyness, 164 
Crabb, 199, 239 
Crew, 57 
Crile, 47, 100 
Curiosity, 100, 

Darwin, III, 47, 71, 97, 206, 231, 236, 
237, 238, 239 

Dearborn, 24, 26, 27, 28, 47, 100, 217, 226 

Defiance, 171, 187 

Delight, 116, 154 

Despair, 162 

Determination, 143, 170 

Dewey, 47, 68, 222 

Disgust, 38, 161, 167, 176, 177, 178, 236 






Dislike, 27 
Dolbear, 63 
Dread, 125 
Dreams, 7, 223 
Duchenne, III, 47, 71 

Ecstasy, 113, 158, 233 
Ecstasy and eagerness, 158 
Effort, feeling of, 94 
Electricity, 58 

Emotion, 5, 9, 37, 38, 46, 47, 51, 71, 74, 
92, 108, 230 
aesthetic, 94, 117 
graded, 106 
intellectual, 94 
mixed, 157 
moral, 94 

organs of, 35, 47, 95, 102 
primary, 38 
religious, 94 

sensuous, 94, 118, 119, 120 
Emotional complex, 99, 101 
ideas, 86 
movements, 99 
systems, 99, 105 
End organs of sense, 34 
motion, 35 
emotion, 35 
Energy, 58, 59 
Environment, 5, 94 
Enthusiasm, H3, 233 
Expectancy, 188 

Experience, 1, 2, 11, 46, 67, 208, 209 
Experiment, 11, 81, 109, 199, 231 
Expression, 2, 3, 47, 81, 212, 221, 232 
law of, 214 
motor, 215 
verbal, 215 

Expression of emotions and singing, 205, 
207 

of feelings, 205 
of laughter, 206 
of smiling, 206 

Expressive movements, 66, 212, 221, 232 

Face, 8, 98, 106 
Facial expression, 71, 109 
Fatigue, 29, 95 


Fear, 5, 8, 38, 39, 82, 95, 156, 206, 207 
225, 235, 239 :A 

idea of, 86 

Feeling, 8, 29, 37, 42, 46, 47, 51, 66, 71, 9 | 
mixed, 94, 207 
organs of, 95 
Fe're, 47 

Fernald, 199, 203, 239 
Firmness, 170 
Force, 58 

Freud, 16, 99, 224 
Fusion, 89, 106 

Ganot, 55 
Genzmer, 27 
Gerrish, 52, 62 
Glands, 35 
Glee, 182 
Goethe, 30, 75 
Gowes, 95 
Gray, 52, 86 

Habit, 50, 102, 230 
Hall Stanley, 100 
Hallucination, 7 
Halleck, 50 
Hate, 159, 239 
Hazard, 68 
Hearing, 25, 28 . 

Helmholtz, 204 
Herrick, 37 
Histologist, 30 

Horror, 93, 145, 147, 155, 184, 191, 239 
Howell, 29, 52 
Human body, 30 
Hunger, 29 

Huxley, 37, 52, 62, 71 

Ideas, 41, 44, 66, 86, 230 
aesthetic, 94 
intellectual, 94 
moral, 94 
religious, 94 
sensuous, 94 
Ideomotor action, 51 
Illusion, 7 
Illusory feeling, 92 
perception, 92 




I 


— 243 — 


Image, 5, 44, 66, 89, 208, 230, 
Pagination, 1, 5, 44, 229 
impression, 5, 46, 96, 101, 230 
Impulse, 49 
Indifference, 135 
Infancy, 5, 23, 24, 228 
Inhibition, 5 
Instincts, 47, 50 
Instinctive action, 102 
Intellectual life, 211 
complex, 101 

Interest, 93, 106, 116, 127, 188, 198 
and tenderness, 133 

Jackson, 84 
Judd, 2, 47, 68, 96, 100 
James, 2, 5, 47, 49, 82, 88, 86—90, 95, 98, 
100, 209, 211 
Jastrow, 96, 100 
Jealousy, 170, 171 
Joy, 10, 19, 39, 100, 182 
Judgment, 6, 45, 109, 198 

Klrchhoff, 57 

Knowledge, 7, 8, 64, 90, 204 
Kussmaul, 27 

Ladd, 10 

Ladd and Woodworth, 218 
Language, 9, 67, 68 
conventional, 70 
natural, 70 

Laughter, 106, 181, 182, 239 
expression of, 86, 206 
idea of, 86 
Lavater, III, 71 
Lessing, 20 
Le Brun, 47, 231, 237 
Light, 59 
Loathing, 178 
Loeb, 232 

Loveday and Green, 226 
Love, 106, 108, 119, 120 
Lowell, 20, 225 
Luys, 220 

Macbeth, 14 
Mantegazza, 47, 231, 235 


March, 199 
Matter, 30, 54, 63 
Maudsley, 12, 47, 99 
McCosh, 25, 230 
McDougall, Wm. 47, 100 
Meaning, 45 
Meditation, 168 
Medulla oblongata, 34 
Memory, 5, 44, 99, 229 
and experience, 217 
as a biological fact, 218 
Mental fact, 3, 4, 9 
life, 3 

Merriment, 182 
Mills, 83, 86 
Mimic movements, 95 
Mind, the infant’s, 229 
Modesty, 115, 116 
Moldenhaur, 28 
Molecules, 55 
Monokow, 95 
Mood, 48, 84 
Moore, 24, 29 
Morgan C. Lloyd, 210 
Mosso, 18, 71, 75, 224 
Motion, 58 
Motor fibres, 5 
Muller, 65 
MUller, Max, 67 
Munsterberg, 223 
Muscles, 7, 25, 29 
exercise of, 95 
Music, 62, 204 

Natural language, 67, 70, 84 

Nervous system, 5, 30, 31, 33, 34, 216 

Neurone, 36 

Newton, 58 

Noise, 62 

Normal complex, 99 
Nothnagel, 95 

Opitz-Burton, 52, 100 
Organic facts, 7 

Organs of the emotions, 35, 47, 95, 102 
of motion, 35 
of sense, 35 

Pain, 26, 29, 38, 46, 66, 95, 100 
physical, 148 




244 


Parmalee, 47 
Passion, 48 
Perception, 5, 44, 66 
Perplexity, 106, 153 
and suspicion, 131 
Physical agents, 57 
fact, 3, 4, 9, 22 
law, 56 
life, 3 

phenomena, 56 
science, 54 
Physicist, 30 

Physicist's point of view, 52 
Physiological point of view, 51 
Physiologist, 31 
Piderit, 47, 232 
Pike, 52 

Pillsbury, 2, 87, 100 
Pintner, 232 
Pity, 107, 141 

Pleasure, 26, 29, 38, 46, 66, 83, 94, 100, 
105, 118, 197, 206, 238, 

Neasant feeling, 27, 28 
Powlow, 97 

Preyer, 24, 25, 26, 28, 227 
Primary feelings, 38, 100 
Psychical blindness, 82, 83 
Psychical fact, 9, 221 
Psychic overtones, 89 
Psychological methods, 11 
point of view, 40 

Psychology, 2, 9, 22, 216, 218, 220, 222 
and expression, 212 
Psychologist, 31 

Rage, 163 
Rapture, 113 

Reactions and perceptions, 232 
Receptors, 102 
Reasoning, 45 

Reflex action or circuit, 5, 30, 34, 35, 36, 
50, 64 

Reflexes inherited, 102 
acquired, 102 
Relief, 106, 194 

Religious feelings, 83, 106, 129, 208 
ideas, 208 
love, 107, 132, 208 
Respiration, 73 


Reverence, 289, 208 
Rhetoric, 21 
Ribot, 25, 47, 219, 230 
Roget’s Thesaurus, 199, 237 
Ryoce, 2, 46, 211, 212, 216 

Sadness, 82, 83, 165, 206 
Sante de Sanctis, 25, 229 
Science, 21, 200, 203 
and experience, 210 
Schulze, 232 
Scripture, 65 

Sensation, 5, 9, 35, 37, 38, 44, 64, 66, 84 

Senses, 5, 25, 29, 35, 36, 102 

Sensory fibres, 5 

Sentiment, 51, 100 

Shakespeare, 14 

Shand, 99, 100 

Sherrington, 36, 98, 100 

Shinn, 24, 28 

Shrugging the shoulders, 135 
Sick feeling, 149 
Sidis, 238 
Sight, 26 

Singing, 29, 205, 207 
Sleep, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 224 
Smell, 25, 27, 28 

Smiling, 136, 142, 152, 166, 197, 238 
Sneering, 173 
Sociologist, 31 
Sorrow, 100 
Soule, 234, 235 
Sound, 59, 60 
Speech, 7, 69 
Spencer, 47, 97, 231 
Spinal cord, 35 
Stewart, 52 
Stout, 10, 47, 218 
Strain, 29, 94 
Stratton, 47, 214 
Strumpel, 95 
Suffering physical, 150 
Surprise, 82, 83, 121, 183, 186, 187, 193 
206, 233, 236 
graded intensity of, 106 
pleasurable, 107, 134 
Suspicion, 82, 83, 107, 122, 131, 195 
235 

and aversion 180, 



and dread, 125 
and fear, 130 
and worry, 128 
Symbol, 7, 71 
Sympathy, 140, 160 
(Synonyms, 203 
of anger, 240 
of contempt, 235, 236 
of disgust, 235 
of enthusiasm, 233 
of fear, 2'59 
of hate, 239 
of pain, 240 
of pleasure, 234 
of surprise, 236, 237 
of suspicion, 235 
System of organs, 32, 33 
emotional, 99, 105 
intellectual, 99, 105 
volitional, 99, 105 

Taste, 25, 27 
Temperament, 48, 229 
Tenderness, 107, 116, 175 
Terror, 184, 187, 206, 239 
Thalamus, 95 
Thinking, 42, 43, 45 

Thorndike, 2, 3, 22, 42, 47, 49, 50, 65, 
82, 91, 100, 108, 214 
Thoughts, 66, 71, 74, 139, 146, 168, 169 
preconceived, 103, 106 
Tilney and Riley, 52, 92, 95, 100 
Titchener, 2, 44, 47, 93, 100, 210, 216 


Touch, 26, 27 

Truth, in search of, 137, 237 

Vanity, 164 
Verbal education, 7 
Verworn, 52 
Vibration, 64 
forced, 206 
Volition, 48, 51 
Volitional complex, 101 

Warner, 47, 232 
Warren, 2, 47, 100 
Watson, 47, 50, 100, 216 
Webster, 234, 239 
White, 13 
Will, 35, 49, 101 
Willing, 42, 48, 86 

Woodworth, 2, 47, 49, 50, 95, 100, 103 
Words, 2, 6, 8, 9, 41, 66, 71, 74, 91, 199, 
203, 204, 208 
and concepts, 45 
list of, 110 

Wonder, 38, 100, 185, 193, 233, 237 
graded intensity of, 106 
Worry, 124, 155 
Writing, 70 
Wundt, 46, 221 

Yawning, 29 
Yerkes, 2, 42, 47 

Ziehen, 47 








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